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The horse (Equus ferus caballus)[2][3] is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus, or the wild horse. It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated, such as the endangered Przewalski's horse, a separate subspecies, and the only remaining true wild horse. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. Horses' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses. Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits, as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers. Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their first reaction to threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened.[87] They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.[88] Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses.[89] However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.[90] Intelligence and learningIn the past, horses were considered unintelligent, with no abstract thinking ability, unable to generalize, and driven primarily by a herd mentality. However, modern studies show that they perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and social system identification. They also have good spatial discrimination abilities.[91] Studies have assessed equine intelligence in the realms of problem solving, learning speed, and knowledge retention. Results show that horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to solve advanced cognitive challenges that involve categorization and concept learning. They learn from habituation, desensitization, Pavlovian conditioning, and operant conditioning. They respond to and learn from both positive and negative reinforcement.[91] Recent studies even suggest horses are able to count if the quantity involved is less than four.[92] Domesticated horses tend to face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that stifle instinctive behavior while learning tasks that are not natural.[91] Horses are creatures of habit that respond and adapt well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. Some trainers believe that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that fits best with an individual animal's natural inclinations. Others who handle horses regularly note that personality also may play a role separate from intelligence in determining how a given animal responds to various experiences.[93] TemperamentMain articles Draft horse, Warmblood, and Oriental horse Horses are mammals, and as such are "warm-blooded" creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded reptiles. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy,[94] while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer.[95] Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses",[96] with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".[97] Illustration of hotbloods, warmbloods and coldblood breeds"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-Teke, Arabian horse, Barb and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds.[94] Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed.[98] They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged.[99] The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.[100][101] Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people.[95] They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants".[102] Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale.[102] Some, like the Percheron, are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.[103] Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.[104] The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.[105] armblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.[106] Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.[107] Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".[96] Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping.[108] Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.[109] Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.[98] Sleep patternsSee also Horse sleep patterns and Sleep in non-humans When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing, awake or in a light doze, keeping watch.Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing.[110] Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger.[111] Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours,[111] mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each.[112] The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.[113] Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements.[111] However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing.[114] This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from that disorder.[115] Taxonomy and evolution From left to right Size development, biometrical changes in the cranium, reduction of toes (left forefoot)Main articles Evolution of the horse, Equus (genus), and Equidae The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not.[116] Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a group of mammals that was dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families, but only three—Equidae (the horse and related species), the tapir, and the rhinoceros—have survived to the present day.[117] The earliest known member of the Equidae family was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot.[118] The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago.[119] Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee,[120] known informally as splint bones.[121] Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed.[120] By about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had evolved.[122] Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America. By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America.[123] Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere.[124][125][126] The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival.[127] Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.[128] Wild species surviving into modern times A small herd of Przewalski's HorsesMain article Wild horse A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals.[129] Only two never-domesticated subspecies, the Tarpan and the Przewalski's Horse, survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today. The Przewalski's Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a rare Asian animal. It is also known as the Mongolian Wild Horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild due to the conservation efforts of numerous zoos.[130] Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia.[131][132] There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world. The Tarpan or European Wild Horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.[133] Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the Tarpan,[133][134][135] which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses. Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such,[132] but testing did not reveal genetic differences with domesticated horses.[136] Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared characteristics,[137][138] but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.[137][139] Other modern equidsMain article Equus (genus) Besides the horse, there are seven other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family. These are the *** or donkey, Equus asinus; the mountain zebra, Equus zebra; plains zebra, Equus quagga; Grévy's zebra, Equus grevyi; the kiang, Equus kiang; and the onager, Equus hemionus.[140] Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (female donkey).[141] Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse.[142] With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.[143] DomesticationMain article Domestication of the horse himbetka rock painting showing man riding on horse, IndiaDomestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BC. Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries, the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains. The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to approximately 3500–4000 BC.[144][145] By 3000 BC, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent.[146] The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BC.[147] Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse,[148][149] while many mares were part of early domesticated herds.[139][150][151] This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are very low levels of Y-chromosome variability,[148][149] but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA.[139][150][151] There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds.[139][150][151][152] Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation.[153] In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC.[154] Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication.[105] Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication.[155] However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses. Feral populationsMain article Feral horse Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals.[129] Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world.[156][157] Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses,[158] as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.[159] There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild" conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.[160][161] BreedsMain article Horse breed, List of horse breeds, and Horse breeding The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called "thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry.[162] Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.[163] These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition.[164] In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse.[165] Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work.[166] Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage.[166] Heavy draft horses developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons.[167] Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets.[168] Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single foundation sire, or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed.[169] There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.[170] Interaction with humansWorldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United States alone.[171] The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion.[172] In a 2004 "poll" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.[173] Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity;[174] to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control.[175] Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle,[176] and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear.[177] Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.[178] Sport A horse and rider in dressage competition at the OlympicsMain articles Equestrianism, Horse racing, Horse training, and Horse tack Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing and show jumping, have origins in military training, which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations. Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques.[174] Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.[179] Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show jumping, dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox hunting.[180] Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider.[181] Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task.[182] Examples of these sport of partnership between human and horse include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other,[183] and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.[182] Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky.[184] A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it.[185] Work A mounted police officer in PolandThere are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control.[186] Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.[187] Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance.[188] Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone.[190] Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses.[191][192] Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.[193] Entertainment and cultureSee also Horses in art and Horse worship Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles.[194] Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events.[195] Public exhibitions are another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.[196] Horses are frequently seen in television, films and literature. They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories.[197] Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products.[198] The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of poses and equipment.[199] The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Norse, include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun.[200] The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.[201] Therapeutic useSee also Hippotherapy and Therapeutic horseback riding People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence.[202] The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI).[203] Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.[204] Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes.[205] There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.[206] WarfareMain article Horses in warfare Turkish cavalry, 1917Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 to 3000 BC,[207] and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age.[208][209] Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.[210] ProductsHorses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses. Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis.[211] Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.[211] The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine), and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy.[212] The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.[213] Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures,[214] and a subject of political controversy in others.[215] Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets,[216] baseballs,[217] and baseball gloves. Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue.[218] Horse bones can be used to make implements.[219] Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.[220] In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.[221] CareMain article Horse care See also Equine nutrition, Horse grooming, Veterinary medicine, and Farrier Checking teeth and other physical examinations are an important part of horse care.Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture.[222] They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms (24 lb) of food.[223] Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active.[224] When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.[225] Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 10 US gallons (38 L) to 12 US gallons (45 L) per day.[226] Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.[227] Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist.[228] If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.[229] When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained.[230] Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.[231] Child *** abuse or child molestation is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent uses a child for *** stimulation.[1][2] Forms of child *** abuse include asking or pressuring a child to engage in *** activities (regardless of the outcome), indecent exposure (of the genitals, female nipples, etc.) to a child with intent to gratify their own *** desires, or to intimidate or groom the child, physical *** contact with a child, or using a child to produce child ***.[1][3][4] The effects of child *** abuse can include depression,[5] post-traumatic stress disorder,[6] anxiety,[7] complex post-traumatic stress disorder,[8] propensity to further victimization in adulthood,[9] and physical injury to the child, among other problems.[10] *** abuse by a family member is a form of ***, and can result in more serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental ***.[11] The global prevalence of child *** abuse has been estimated at 19.7% for females and 7.9% for males, according to a 2009 study published in Clinical Psychology Review that examined 65 studies from 22 countries. Using the available data, the highest prevalence rate of child *** abuse geographically was found in Africa (34.4%), primarily because of high rates in South Africa; Europe showed the lowest prevalence rate (9.2%); America and Asia had prevalence rates between 10.1% and 23.9%.[12] In the past, other research has concluded similarly that in North America, for example, approximately 15% to 25% of women and 5% to 15% of men were sexually abused when they were children.[13][14][15] Most *** abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims; approximately 30% are relatives of the child, most often brothers, fathers, uncles or cousins; around 60% are other acquaintances such as 'friends' of the family, babysitters, or neighbors; strangers are the offenders in approximately 10% of child *** abuse cases.[13] Most child *** abuse is committed by men; studies show that women commit 14% to 40% of offenses reported against boys and 6% of offenses reported against girls.[13][14][16] Some sources report that most offenders who sexually abuse prepubescent children are pedophiles,[17] but some offenders do not meet the clinical diagnosis standards for ***.[18][19] Under the law, child *** abuse is an umbrella term describing criminal and civil offenses in which an adult engages in *** activity with a minor or exploits a minor for the purpose of *** gratification.[4][20] The American Psychiatric Association states that "children cannot consent to *** activity with adults", and condemns any such action by an adult "An adult who engages in *** activity with a child is performing a criminal and immoral act which never can be considered normal or socially acceptable behavior."[21] youtube, HD, The Avengers Age of Ultron, Joss Whedon, action, adventure, fantasy, sci_fi, The Accidental Genius, , drama, The Avengers Age of Ultron, Joss Whedon, action, adventure, fantasy, sci_fi, The Accidental Genius, , drama, The Parsifal Mosaic, Ron Howard, drama, mystery, thriller Edge of Tomorrow, Doug Liman, action, sci_fi, Perry Mason, , comedy, crime, Edge of Tomorrow, Doug Liman, action, sci_fi, Perry Mason, , comedy, crime, Tehran, , drama, thriller RoboCop, José Padilha, action, crime, sci_fi, thriller, The Judge, David Dobkin, drama, RoboCop, José Padilha, action, crime, sci_fi, thriller, The Judge, David Dobkin, drama, The Day Trader, Derick Martini, crime Gravity, Alfonso Cuarón, drama, sci_fi, thriller, Suburbicon, Joel Coen, comedy, Gravity, Alfonso Cuarón, drama, sci_fi, thriller, Suburbicon, Joel Coen, comedy, The Tale of the Body Thief, , fantasy, horror The Amazing Spider-Man 2, Marc Webb, action, adventure, fantasy, The Substitute, Scott Derrickson, comedy, fantasy, horror, sci_fi, The Amazing Spider-Man 2, Marc Webb, action, adventure, fantasy, The Substitute, Scott Derrickson, comedy, fantasy, horror, sci_fi, Go Mutants!, , adventure, comedy The Hobbit The Desolation of Smaug, Peter Jackson, adventure, drama, fantasy, Burst 3D, , horror, The Hobbit The Desolation of Smaug, Peter Jackson, adventure, drama, fantasy, Burst 3D, , horror, East of Eden, Gary Ross, drama Guardians of the Galaxy, James Gunn, action, adventure, sci_fi, The Casebook of Victor Frankenstein, , drama, horror, Guardians of the Galaxy, James Gunn, action, adventure, sci_fi, The Casebook of Victor Frankenstein, , drama, horror, My Best Friend, , comedy 47 Ronin, Carl Rinsch, action, adventure, fantasy, Cineplex, , horror, 47 Ronin, Carl Rinsch, action, adventure, fantasy, Cineplex, , horror, The Serpent and the Eagle, , drama, history Thor The Dark World, Alan Taylor, action, adventure, fantasy, Just Another Love Story, Marc Webb, crime, drama, thriller, Thor The Dark World, Alan Taylor, action, adventure, fantasy, Just Another Love Story, Marc Webb, crime, drama, thriller, L.A. 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Goyer Supernatural Thriller Project, , thriller Ant-Man, Edgar Wright, action, sci_fi, tt0915475, , , Ant-Man, Edgar Wright, action, sci_fi, tt0915475, , , The Phoenix, , thriller Sin City A Dame to Kill For, Frank Miller, Robert Rodriguez, action, crime, thriller, Earp Saints for Sinners, Sam Raimi, action, sci_fi, western, Sin City A Dame to Kill For, Frank Miller, Robert Rodriguez, action, crime, thriller, Earp Saints for Sinners, Sam Raimi, action, sci_fi, western, The Charm School, , action, drama Jurassic World, Colin Trevorrow, action, adventure, sci_fi, thriller, ArchEnemies, , action, Jurassic World, Colin Trevorrow, action, adventure, sci_fi, thriller, ArchEnemies, , action, Fathers and Guns, , comedy Godzilla, Gareth Edwards, action, adventure, fantasy, sci_fi, thriller, This Man, , horror, thriller, Godzilla, Gareth Edwards, action, adventure, fantasy, sci_fi, thriller, This Man, , horror, thriller, A Matter of Honor, , action, adventure, thriller Ender's Game, Gavin Hood, action, adventure, sci_fi, Squirrels to the Nuts, Peter Bogdanovich, comedy, Ender's Game, Gavin Hood, action, adventure, sci_fi, Squirrels to the Nuts, Peter Bogdanovich, comedy, Who Framed Roger Rabbit 2, , animation, comedy Captain America The Winter Soldier, Anthony Russo, Joe Russo, action, adventure, sci_fi, Machete Kills Again... 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In Space!, Robert Rodriguez, action, Games of 1940, , drama Young Ones, Jake Paltrow, action, drama, sci_fi, Fire and Ice, Robert Rodriguez, adventure, fantasy, Young Ones, Jake Paltrow, action, drama, sci_fi, Fire and Ice, Robert Rodriguez, adventure, fantasy, American by Blood, , drama, war Jack Ryan Shadow Recruit, Kenneth Branagh, action, drama, thriller, Madman, George Huang, action, sci_fi, thriller, Jack Ryan Shadow Recruit, Kenneth Branagh, action, drama, thriller, Madman, George Huang, action, sci_fi, thriller, The Fugees, Audrey Wells, drama, sport Lone Survivor, Peter Berg, action, drama, thriller, war, Bonzai Shadowhands, Jason Reitman, action, comedy, drama, Lone Survivor, Peter Berg, action, drama, thriller, war, Bonzai Shadowhands, Jason Reitman, action, comedy, drama, Untitled Milli Vanilli Project, Florian Gallenberger, comedy, drama Riddick, David Twohy, action, sci_fi, thriller, Elliot Allagash, Jason Reitman, comedy, drama, Riddick, David Twohy, action, sci_fi, thriller, Elliot Allagash, Jason Reitman, comedy, drama, The Best a Man Can Get, Karey Kirkpatrick, comedy, drama The Hunger Games Catching Fire, Francis Lawrence, action, adventure, sci_fi, thriller, Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children, Tim Burton, fantasy, The Hunger Games Catching Fire, Francis Lawrence, action, adventure, sci_fi, thriller, Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children, Tim Burton, fantasy, Even Silence Has an End, , drama Seventh Son, Sergei Bodrov, adventure, family, fantasy, Mai, the Psychic Girl, Tim Burton, action, adventure, crime, thriller, Seventh Son, Sergei Bodrov, adventure, family, fantasy, Mai, the Psychic Girl, Tim Burton, action, adventure, crime, thriller, Twisted Metal, Brian Taylor, action Maleficent, Robert Stromberg, action, adventure, drama, family, fantasy, mystery, romance, thriller, Monsterpocalypse, , action, adventure, comedy, sci_fi, Maleficent, Robert Stromberg, action, adventure, drama, family, fantasy, mystery, romance, thriller, Monsterpocalypse, , action, adventure, comedy, sci_fi, Stretch Armstrong, , action The Zero Theorem, Terry Gilliam, drama, fantasy, sci_fi, Night of the Living, , animation, The Zero Theorem, Terry Gilliam, drama, fantasy, sci_fi, Night of the Living, , animation, Bad Santa 2, , comedy Rio 2, Carlos Saldanha, animation, adventure, comedy, family, Pinocchio, , adventure, fantasy, Rio 2, Carlos Saldanha, animation, adventure, comedy, family, Pinocchio, , adventure, fantasy, Gears of War, , action, sci_fi, war Pinocchio, Guillermo del Toro, Mark Gustafson, animation, fantasy, Skippy Dies, Neil Jordan, comedy, drama, Pinocchio, Guillermo del Toro, Mark Gustafson, animation, fantasy, Skippy Dies, Neil Jordan, comedy, drama, ID Forever Part II, Roland Emmerich, action, sci_fi I, Frankenstein, Stuart Beattie, action, fantasy, sci_fi, The Man from U.N.C.L.E., Guy Ritchie, action, adventure, comedy, I, Frankenstein, Stuart Beattie, action, fantasy, sci_fi, The Man from U.N.C.L.E., Guy Ritchie, action, adventure, comedy, Jumper 2, Doug Liman, action, adventure, sci_fi, thriller The Wolf of Wall Street, Martin Scorsese, biography, crime, drama, The Cannonball Run, Guy Ritchie, action, comedy, The Wolf of Wall Street, Martin Scorsese, biography, crime, drama, The Cannonball Run, Guy Ritchie, action, comedy, Sinbad, , action, adventure American Hustle, David O. 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Russell, crime, drama, Maximum City, Danny Boyle, drama, Popeye, Genndy Tartakovsky, animation Foxcatcher, Bennett Miller, drama, tt2096652, , , Foxcatcher, Bennett Miller, drama, tt2096652, , , Eliza Graves, Brad Anderson, thriller Vampire Academy, Mark Waters, action, fantasy, mystery, Untitled Laura Vikmanis Project, , drama, Vampire Academy, Mark Waters, action, fantasy, mystery, Untitled Laura Vikmanis Project, , drama, Untitled Bruce Almighty Sequel, , comedy, drama, fantasy Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, Matt Reeves, action, drama, sci_fi, thriller, Desiring Da Ming Palace, Antoine Fuqua, history, Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, Matt Reeves, action, drama, sci_fi, thriller, Desiring Da Ming Palace, Antoine Fuqua, history, Enchanted 2, Anne Fletcher, animation, adventure, family, fantasy, romance Neighbors, Nicholas Stoller, comedy, Southpaw, Antoine Fuqua, drama, Neighbors, Nicholas Stoller, comedy, Southpaw, Antoine Fuqua, drama, Untitled Dr. Seuss Project, , drama Need for Speed, Scott Waugh, action, Chicagoland, Antoine Fuqua, crime, drama, Need for Speed, Scott Waugh, action, Chicagoland, Antoine Fuqua, crime, drama, The Rocky Horror Picture Show, , horror, musical, thriller Prisoners, Denis Villeneuve, crime, drama, thriller, SIS, , crime, drama, Prisoners, Denis Villeneuve, crime, drama, thriller, SIS, , crime, drama, Sub-Mariner, Jonathan Mostow, action, adventure, drama Europa Report, Sebastián Cordero, horror, sci_fi, thriller, Storming Las Vegas, Antoine Fuqua, crime, drama, Europa Report, Sebastián Cordero, horror, sci_fi, thriller, Storming Las Vegas, Antoine Fuqua, crime, drama, Savage Planet, , action Pompeii, Paul W.S. Anderson, action, adventure, drama, romance, Can a Song Save Your Life?, John Carney, comedy, drama, music, romance, Pompeii, Paul W.S. Anderson, action, adventure, drama, romance, Can a Song Save Your Life?, John Carney, comedy, drama, music, romance, Infamous, , action 300 Rise of an Empire, Noam Murro, action, drama, war, House of Joel, , comedy, horror, 300 Rise of an Empire, Noam Murro, action, drama, war, House of Joel, , comedy, horror, Deathlok, , action, adventure, sci_fi Tracks, John Curran, adventure, biography, drama, Untitled Paul Feig Project, Paul Feig, comedy, Tracks, John Curran, adventure, biography, drama, Untitled Paul Feig Project, Paul Feig, comedy, Ghost in the Shell, , action, crime, drama, sci_fi Red Sonja, Simon West, action, adventure, thriller, Do-Gooders, , comedy, Red Sonja, Simon West, action, adventure, thriller, Do-Gooders, , comedy, Luke Cage, , action, crime, drama, fantasy, thriller Third Person, Paul Haggis, drama, romance, Attorneys at Raw, , comedy, Third Person, Paul Haggis, drama, romance, Attorneys at Raw, , comedy, Doctor Strange, , adventure, fantasy Blood Ties, Guillaume Canet, crime, drama, thriller, Untitled Aziz Ansari/Randy Project, , comedy, Blood Ties, Guillaume Canet, crime, drama, thriller, Untitled Aziz Ansari/Randy Project, , comedy, Uncharted Drake's Fortune, , action How to Train Your Dragon 2, Dean DeBlois, animation, action, adventure, comedy, family, fantasy, Let's Do This, , comedy, How to Train Your Dragon 2, Dean DeBlois, animation, action, adventure, comedy, family, fantasy, Let's Do This, , comedy, Maximum Ride, James Patterson, action, adventure, comedy, fantasy, sci_fi, thriller The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, Ben Stiller, adventure, comedy, drama, fantasy, Business Trip, , comedy, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, Ben Stiller, adventure, comedy, drama, fantasy, Business Trip, , comedy, The Hands of Shang-Chi, , action, adventure, crime Hell & Back, Tom Gianas, Ross Shuman, animation, comedy, Untitled Pee-Wee-Herman Project, , adventure, comedy, Hell & Back, Tom Gianas, Ross Shuman, animation, comedy, Untitled Pee-Wee-Herman Project, , adventure, comedy, The Killing Sea, , action, drama, romance Haunter, Vincenzo Natali, horror, mystery, thriller, Untitled Sherlock Holmes Project, , comedy, Haunter, Vincenzo Natali, horror, mystery, thriller, Untitled Sherlock Holmes Project, , comedy, Peony in Love, , drama The Counselor, Ridley Scott, crime, drama, thriller, A Whole New Hugh, , comedy, The Counselor, Ridley Scott, crime, drama, thriller, A Whole New Hugh, , comedy, Get Santa, Christopher Smith, comedy, family This Is the End, Evan Goldberg, Seth Rogen, comedy, fantasy, Friday Night Lights, , drama, sport, This Is the End, Evan Goldberg, Seth Rogen, comedy, fantasy, Friday Night Lights, , drama, sport, In Vitro, , horror, thriller The Redemption of Cain, Will Smith, drama, The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, Terry Gilliam, adventure, The Redemption of Cain, Will Smith, drama, The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, Terry Gilliam, adventure, The Kind One, Ridley Scott, crime, drama, thriller Captain Phillips, Paul Greengrass, action, adventure, biography, crime, drama, thriller, Mr. Vertigo, , fantasy, Captain Phillips, Paul Greengrass, action, adventure, biography, crime, drama, thriller, Mr. Vertigo, , fantasy, Before I Go to Sleep, Rowan Joffe, mystery, thriller The Legend of Cain, Will Smith, drama, The Defective Detective, , fantasy, The Legend of Cain, Will Smith, drama, The Defective Detective, , fantasy, Wool, J Blakeson, sci_fi Noah, Darren Aronofsky, drama, fantasy, Time Bandits, , adventure, comedy, fantasy, sci_fi, , Sidney Hall, Shawn Christensen, drama 12 Years a Slave, Steve McQueen, biography, drama, history, The Matarese Circle, , action, drama, mystery, thriller, , Gucci, Jordan Scott, biography, drama, history Mandela Long Walk to Freedom, Justin Chadwick, biography, drama, history, As She Climbed Across the Table, , drama, romance, sci_fi, , Town House, , comedy, drama Last Vegas, Jon Turteltaub, comedy, London Fields, Mathew Cullen, crime, mystery, thriller, , Reykjavik, Mike Newell, Labor Day, Jason Reitman, drama, League of Monster Slayers, Aaron Woodley, fantasy, , Nemesis, Joe Carnahan, action, adventure, fantasy Sabotage, David Ayer, action, crime, drama, thriller, tt0379788, , , , Settle Down, , drama Out of the Furnace, Scott Cooper, drama, thriller, Brooklyn Loves Michael Jackson, , drama, , The Passage, Matt Reeves, action, adventure, fantasy, horror Insidious Chapter 2, James Wan, horror, thriller, Untitled Marion Barry Biopic, Spike Lee, biography, , Untitled Luca Guadagnino Project, Luca Guadagnino, drama Carrie, Kimberly Peirce, drama, horror, Miss Better Living Through Crime, , crime, drama, thriller, , Fly Me to the Moon, Sharon Maguire, comedy, romance Finding Dory, Andrew Stanton, animation, adventure, comedy, family, Time Traveler, , drama, , The Last Werewolf, , drama The World's End, Edgar Wright, action, comedy, sci_fi, Untitled J.J. 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Abrams/Matt Reeves Project, Bradley Parker, action, , Untitled Les Grossman Project, , comedy The Colony, Jeff Renfroe, action, sci_fi, thriller, Hot for Teacher, , comedy, , Selling Time, , thriller, horror Nymphomaniac, Lars von Trier, drama, One Last Thing Before I Go, Mike Nichols, drama, , The Wild Bunch, , western Her, Spike Jonze, comedy, drama, romance, sci_fi, The Invisible Woman, , drama, thriller, , The Hunger 2, , horror Belle, Amma Asante, drama, Nailed, David O. Russell, comedy, romance, , Untitled Chippendales Project, , biography The Fifth Estate, Bill Condon, biography, drama, thriller, King of the Nudies, , biography, drama, , Warriors, , action, adventure, crime, drama The Wind Rises, Hayao Miyazaki, animation, biography, drama, history, romance, Untitled Ice Cube/David O. Russell Project, , action, drama, , Shadow Divers, , adventure, drama Fighting Back, Martin J. Thomas, action, crime, thriller, Untitled Buddy Cianci Biopic, David O. Russell, biography, crime, drama, , Hell's Angels, , drama Big Eyes, Tim Burton, biography, drama, Maps to the Stars, David Cronenberg, drama, , Lucky Strike, , action The Good Dinosaur, , animation, comedy, family, fantasy, Shadow of the Colossus, Josh Trank, adventure, fantasy, , Foreverman, , action, adventure, drama Only Lovers Left Alive, Jim Jarmusch, drama, horror, romance, tt1674777, , , , Apollo Rising, , drama Non-Stop, Jaume Collet-Serra, action, mystery, thriller, The Flash, Greg Berlanti, action, adventure, drama, fantasy, sci_fi, , Tigress, , comedy, drama Mr. Peabody & Sherman, Rob Minkoff, animation, adventure, family, sci_fi, Wonder Woman, , action, adventure, fantasy, sci_fi, , The Annihilator, , action, adventure Blue Jasmine, *** Allen, comedy, drama, Untitled Tom Hardy Outlaw Biker Project, , action, drama, , Legion of 5, , animation, action The Family, Luc Besson, comedy, crime, thriller, Jinx, , , , Venom, Josh Trank, action, drama Runner Runner, Brad Furman, crime, drama, thriller, Agent 13, , action, sci_fi, , Untitled Keith Gordon Project, Keith Gordon, thriller August Osage County, John Wells, comedy, drama, Florence of Arabia, , comedy, , The Keys to the Street, Julius Sevcík, thriller Grace of Monaco, Olivier Dahan, biography, drama, Ladies Night, Fred Savage, comedy, , Motor City, Albert Hughes, action, crime, drama, mystery, thriller Romeo and Juliet, Carlo Carlei, drama, romance, Cities of Refuge, , crime, thriller, , Fully Automatic, , action, comedy Suite française, Saul Dibb, drama, romance, war, Uptown Saturday Night, Adam McKay, comedy, , The Envoy, , action, thriller The Congress, Ari Folman, animation, sci_fi, Wheeler Dealers, , drama, , Don Quixote, , adventure, drama, fantasy Justin and the Knights of Valour, Manuel Sicilia, animation, adventure, Joe, , drama, , Untitled Ben 10 Project, , action, adventure, comedy, family, sci_fi Fata Morgana, Juha Wuolijoki, thriller, The American Can, Edward Zwick, drama, , Forbidden Planet, , sci_fi Collider, Jason Butler, sci_fi, Angelology, , drama, , Hood, Andy Wachowski, Lana Wachowski, action, adventure, drama Lee Daniels' The Butler, Lee Daniels, biography, drama, The Last Pharaoh, , drama, , Line of Sight, Mike McCoy, action, thriller How I Live Now, Kevin Macdonald, action, drama, thriller, war, tt0790809, , , , Untitled Project X Sequel, , comedy The Rover, David Michôd, drama, tt0783529, , , , World War X, , action Paranoia, Robert Luketic, drama, thriller, tt0454139, , , , The Galton Case, , crime Veronica Mars, Rob Thomas, comedy, crime, drama, tt0460872, , , , tt1376410, , Killing Season, Mark Steven Johnson, action, drama, thriller, Welcome to the Sticks, , comedy, , Gypsy, , biography, comedy, drama, musical Saving Mr. Banks, John Lee Hancock, biography, comedy, drama, family, history, music, Time Share, , comedy, , Dirty Dozen, , action, drama, war Blood, Nick Murphy, crime, drama, thriller, Annie, Will Gluck, comedy, drama, family, musical, , Homecourt Advantage, , drama Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Jonathan Liebesman, action, adventure, comedy, fantasy, sci_fi, Untitled Dr. S. Allen Counter Project, , drama, , tt0806098, , Kane & Lynch, , action, crime, drama, thriller, What Would Kenny Do?, , comedy, , Diamond Anniversary, , comedy Top Gun 2, , action, Monster Witness Relocation Program, , sci_fi, , Hench, , action, comedy, crime Untitled Batman Reboot, , action, crime, drama, Brushback, Malcolm D. Lee, comedy, , Goosebumps, Rob Letterman, horror Mad Max Fury Road, George Miller, action, adventure, sci_fi, The Billionaire's Vinegar, David Koepp, drama, , Bachelorette, , comedy Escape Plan, Mikael Håfström, action, mystery, thriller, Cooked, , drama, , The Complete History of My *** Failures, Jay Roach, comedy Hancock 2, , action, fantasy, Newton's Law, , adventure, comedy, family, , World's Most Wanted, , action, thriller Two Eyes Staring, Scott Derrickson, horror, mystery, thriller, My Wife Hates Your Wife, Dany Boon, comedy, , The Insane Laws, , comedy Winter's Tale, Akiva Goldsman, fantasy, Sisters of Mercy, , comedy, drama, romance, , tt0446741, , Real Steel 2, , action, drama, sci_fi, The City That Sailed, , drama, fantasy, , The Boys, Adam McKay, action Robopocalypse, , action, sci_fi, thriller, Overboard, , comedy, romance, , Man-Witch, , comedy Interstellar, Christopher Nolan, sci_fi, Interpol, , comedy, , Planet Terry, , comedy Voyage of Time, Terrence Malick, drama, College Fright Night, Brad Leo Lyon, comedy, horror, , Invertigo, D.J. Caruso, drama Salt 2, , action, crime, mystery, thriller, tt1656174, , , , Criminal Macabre, , horror Untitled Blade Runner Project, Ridley Scott, sci_fi, The Eternal, Justin McConnell, action, crime, drama, horror, , The Art of Racing in the Rain, , comedy, drama Safe Haven, , drama, Scholomance The Devil's School, , horror, , Untitled Big Man Japan Sequel, , comedy, sci_fi Zombieland 2, , action, comedy, horror, Flowers for Algernon, , drama, , Save the Date, , drama, romance Avatar 2, James Cameron, action, adventure, fantasy, sci_fi, The Long Run, Laura Trevino, drama, , Skyscraper, , action, thriller Indiana Jones 5, Steven Spielberg, action, adventure, comedy, Ghost Graduation, , comedy, fantasy, , Heat, Simon West, crime, drama, thriller Ghostbusters III, , action, comedy, sci_fi, Harold and the Purple Crayon, , animation, , Untitled Big Man Japan Remake, , comedy, sci_fi Dune, , sci_fi, The Magnificent Seven, , action, , To Catch a Thief, , crime, mystery, romance, thriller Untitled Daredevil Reboot, , action, adventure, crime, drama, thriller, Paper Wings, , drama, romance, , Agent Ox, , action, adventure, sci_fi Silver Surfer, , action, fantasy, sci_fi, Adventurer's Club, , adventure, , Untitled Ryan Reynolds/Bradley Cooper Project, , action, comedy Hercules The Thracian Wars, Brett Ratner, action, adventure, The Hardy Men, , comedy, , Escape from New York, , action, thriller The Chronicles of Narnia The Silver Chair, , fantasy, Red Light Winter, Adam Rapp, drama, , A Lion Called Christian, , comedy, family Pirates of the Caribbean 6, , action, adventure, comedy, fantasy, An Enemy of the People, , drama, , 100 Cupboards, , fantasy Black Panther, , action, drama, sci_fi, My Monster, Mark Ruffalo, drama, , The Ring 3D, , drama, horror The Chronicles of Narnia The Magician's Nephew, , fantasy, Low Down, Jeff Preiss, biography, drama, family, music, , Frankenstein, Guillermo del Toro, horror Harker, Eli Roth, action, fantasy, thriller, Untitled Basketball Project, , drama, , Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Guillermo del Toro, horror Lucifer the Movie, Ray Griggs, action, The Disciple Program, Morten Tyldum, thriller, , The Haunted Mansion, Guillermo del Toro, action, drama, family, fantasy, horror, mystery Cliffhanger, , action, adventure, thriller, tt1992269, , , , The Bloody Benders, , thriller Arabian Nights, Chuck Russell, action, adventure, drama, The Wheelman, John Singleton, action, adventure, thriller, , Drood, Guillermo del Toro, drama, thriller Assassin's Creed, , action, adventure, sci_fi, Hannibal the Conqueror, Vin Diesel, adventure, biography, drama, history, , Book of Life, Jorge R. Gutierrez, animation Terminator, Alan Taylor, action, adventure, sci_fi, thriller, The Machine, Adam Shankman, action, comedy, , Beauty and the Beast, Guillermo del Toro, fantasy I Am Legend 2, , action, sci_fi, thriller, The Bricklayer, , action, thriller, , Death The High Cost of Living, Neil Gaiman, fantasy I, Robot 2, , sci_fi, The Garden of Last Days, , drama, , The Orphanage, Mark Pellington, horror, thriller Avatar 3, James Cameron, action, adventure, drama, fantasy, sci_fi, Manhunt, Breck Eisner, action, thriller, , Saturn and the End of Days, Guillermo del Toro, National Treasure 3, Jon Turteltaub, action, adventure, Brilliant, Robert Luketic, thriller, , Trollhunters, Guillermo del Toro, Rodrigo Blaas, animation Bad Boys 3, Michael Bay, action, crime, thriller, Bobby Blue Sky, , comedy, , Alma, Rodrigo Blaas, animation, fantasy, horror, mystery The Brazilian Job, , action, adventure, crime, thriller, Untitled Nat Faxon and Jim Rash Action/Comedy, , action, comedy, , Midnight Delivery, , action, drama *** The Return of Xander Cage, , action, adventure, thriller, Clown Girl, , comedy, , Untitled Space Adventure Project, , adventure, sci_fi Toy Story 4, , animation, comedy, fantasy, Pride and Prejudice and Zombies, Burr Steers, horror, romance, thriller, , World War Robot, , action, war Poltergeist, Gil Kenan, horror, thriller, Chaos Walking, Robert Zemeckis, sci_fi, , Shattered Union, , thriller Tomorrowland, Brad Bird, mystery, sci_fi, Frank or Francis, Charlie Kaufman, comedy, musical, , Alien Legion, , sci_fi Hellraiser, , horror, Tell No One, , thriller, , How to Survive a Garden Gnome Attack, , animation Battle Angel, James Cameron, action, adventure, romance, sci_fi, thriller, The Stand, Scott Cooper, adventure, drama, fantasy, horror, sci_fi, thriller, , Timeless, , sci_fi Akira, Jaume Collet-Serra, action, drama, mystery, sci_fi, thriller, Nathan Decker, , comedy, drama, , Stoneheart, , action, adventure, fantasy tt0284236, , , The Trade, , drama, sport, , Airman, Gil Kenan, animation, adventure, family, sci_fi Paradise Lost, , comedy, Dali & I The Surreal Story, , drama, , Charles Fort, , horror The Addams Family, , animation, Brick Mansions, Camille Delamarre, action, crime, drama, , An Animated American, , animation Austin Powers 4, , comedy, Ruby Tuesday, Gaëtan Brizzi, Paul Brizzi, animation, musical, , Dark Life, , adventure tt2007511, , , Volcano, , crime, drama, , Demonologist, , horror The Unpleasant Profession of Jonathan Hoag, Alex Proyas, mystery, sci_fi, thriller, Liars (A-E), Richard Linklater, comedy, romance, , Measle and the Wrathmonk, Thor Freudenthal, comedy American Jesus, , action, comedy, Nagasaki Deadline, , action, thriller, , Bound by Flesh, Leslie Zemeckis, documentary Hyperion, , sci_fi, The Dive, Martin Campbell, drama, , The Alchemist, , drama The Equalizer, Antoine Fuqua, action, crime, thriller, Untitled James Cameron Project, , , , The Seven Samurai, Scott Mann, action, drama, history tt1230526, , , The Last Train from Hiroshima The Survivors Look Back, James Cameron, drama, history, , The Lives of Others, , drama Singularity, Roland Emmerich, sci_fi, Untitled Animated Action Adventure, Dusan Strugar, animation, , Tulip Fever, Justin Chadwick, drama, romance Major Matt Mason, Robert Zemeckis, action, A Walk Among the Tombstones, Scott Frank, action, crime, drama, , Solomon Grundy, Danny Boyle, comedy, drama Jupiter As