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In 1858, Abraham Lincoln \endash then a candidate for U. S. Senate \endash said: \'93
A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently
half slave and half free\'85It will become all one thing or all the other.\'94
\par Many Americans had come to the same conclusion. A long simmering debate a
bout the expansion of slavery into western territories and states was reaching a climax
in the late 1850s. Northerners and Southerners alike tended to believe that slavery would
wither and die a slow death if not allowed to expand. This would be good news
to many Northerners; the increasingly popular free labor philosophy caused them to regard
their own region as one of unlimited economic promise and the South as one encumbered by
a backward, primitive system which would ultimately prevent them from being
f inancially or morally viable and would endanger
the country as a whole. Eric Foner examined this phenomenon closely in Free Soil, Free
Labor, Free Men. Southerners, on the other hand, felt that their economic and political
independence, and the way of lif e that independence fostered, would be doomed
if the \'93peculiar institution\'94 were not allowed to grow. Differing regional
political cultures exacerbated the debate. Whereas the Upper South states had a tradition
which, like Northern states, encouraged the de
bate of philosophical and political topics without necessarily attaching a personal level
to the discussion, the Deep South was different. Deep South States \endash
and, as Christopher Olson points out in Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi, Mississippi
in particular \endash tended to layer political discussion with
elements of Southern honor and masculinity. In other words, when Northerners told them
their system was deeply flawed and immoral, they took it as a personal attack on \endash
not just their philosophy \endash b ut their honor. Honor, according to Wyatt
Bertram-Brown, was \'93the inner conviction of self-worth\'94 and \'93the claim of that
self-assessment before the public.\'941 A challenge to those convictions was a challenge
to one\rquote s manhood. This was aptly demonstrated in
1856 when South Carolinian Preston Brooks severely beat Massachusetts politician Charles
Sumner with a cane on the very floor of the Senate in response to an especially damning
anti-slavery speech. It is worth noting, however, that historians are not in a
g reement over whether North and South were
truly culturally different in the antebellum period. In the 1960s, Charles Sellers contested
the idea of cultural difference in The Southerner as American, while Eugene Genovese (in The
World the Slaveholders Made ) saw the differences caused by slavery to
be so intrinsic that conflict was almost inevitable. There has been no true academic consensus
on the subject in the years since \endash like so many other Civil War related topics.
\par Once the war was underway, the Confeder ates had many initial successes in the Eastern
Theater. This was not the case in the West. In the first few months of 1862, Confederate
forces were driven out of the officially neutral Missouri as a result of the Battle of Pea
Ridge, Arkansas. Mark Twain described his own participation in the war
in the West, in a very tongue-in-cheek manner, in \'93The Private History of a Campaign That
Failed.\'94 \'93It seemed to me that I was not rightly equipped for this awful business,\'94
he said. \'93 I resolved to retire from this avocation of
sham soldiership while I could still save some remnant of my self-respect.\'94
Union forces occupied first Nashville, then Memphis and New Orleans, giving them control
of most of the Mississippi River by summer. The only major point along the ri
ver remaining in Confederate hands was the heavily-fortified Vicksburg, and that fell
the following year. Union generals U. S. Grant and William T. Sherman followed up their Western
successes by taking active \endash and very successful \endash
roles in the final stages of the war in the East.
\par As soon as the war was over, people from all walks of life began to ask the apparently
simple question: Why did the North defeat the South? It is a question that historians
are still asking, and several theories have been advanced \endash
none of them settling the issue. \'93A definitive answer is not possible,\'94 James McPherson
wrote. \'93That will not stop us from trying to come up with one, though \endash
nor should it. If definitive truth were possible in history, historians would soon have nothing
left to write about.\'94 2 Some Southerners, in the immediate aftermath
of the war, blamed the outcome on the ineffective administration of Jefferson Davis. Others
blamed the superior numbers and resources of the North \endash still the most common
explanation for t he average citizen. Historians, however, are
aware that numerically superior invading armies have sometimes been effectively resisted by
a determined populace, from the American Revolution to Vietnam and beyond. Some would argue that
Grant and Sherman \rquote s revolutionary approach to warfare
\endash a total war waged on civilian infrastructure as well as on opposing armies \endash dispirited
Southerners. Mark Neely has argued that the Union approach was not true \'93total war\'94
(as opposed to World War II, for example), because there was no concerted effort to kill
enemy civilians. This point has been conceded by recent historians, such as Charles Royster
and Mark Grimsley, who have referred to the conflict \endash
in their respective book titles \endash as The Destructive War and The Hard Hand of War.
McPherson has argued that the South lost will \endash and the North gained it \endash
due to a series of military turning points which had by no means been inevitable. The
South lost, in other words, because the North beat them \endash fundamentally a military
rather than a psychological or cultural basis for
victory. Confederate losses at Vicksburg \endash bifurcating the Confederacy \endash
and Gettysburg, within days of each other in July, 1863, would be the major turning
point according to this thesis.3 Others have argued that the North did not win, per s\'e9,
but that the South lost \endash due to a lack or loss of will for reasons
other than battlefield defeat. Perhaps this was due to a weaker sense of nationalism in
the Confederacy than in the Union, or because the more religious Southerners believed \endash
when the war started going badly \endash that God had abandoned them. Kenneth Stampp suggested
that Southerners may have actually felt guilty about slavery, and therefore their hearts
just were not in the fight.4 Regardless of the reasons, the out
come was the same: as Twain himself wrote in The Gilded Age, the war had \'93uprooted
institutions that were centuries old, changed the politics of a people, transformed the
social life of half the country.\'94 \par The changes which resulted in the Mississippi
Valley were sweeping in many ways \endash but there were many who resisted such change.
The state of Mississippi provided two African-American U. S. Senators during Reconstruction \endash
Hiram Revels (who, ironically, held Jefferson Davis\rquote s former seat) and Blanche Bruce.
(As of 2007, there has still not been a third black Southerner in the Senate.) While some
former planters \endash Mississippi\rquote s James Lusk Alcorn being a notable example
\endash accepted and even encouraged biracial political and economic cooperation, many whites
we re opposed to the idea. White landowners would
sometimes offer property at half-price to white buyers, to prevent blacks from purchasing
it \endash an unintended side effect of this practice
was that the economic situation got even worse. Over 150 planters near Natchez had to forfeit
their land in the years just after the war. White resistance was much more direct than
simple finance, though \endash it was soon expressed through violence. Two
of the more infamous examples are the mass attacks on blacks in Meridian, Missi
ssippi in 1870 and Colfax, Louisiana, in 1873. It would be another century before the promises
of Reconstruction would come to fruition for blacks in the Mississippi Valley, and throughout
the South. \par }\pard \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb100\sa100\sbauto1\saauto1\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13894595
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