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NICE TO SEE YOU ALL HERE, AND
WE'RE LOOKING FORWARD TO TODAY'S
PRESENTATION.
WE CIRCULATED AROUND A BOOK, FOR
THOSE WHO HAVEN'T BEEN TO ANY OF
THESE SESSIONS, I WOULD
APPRECIATE IF YOU WOULD SIGN AS
IT SAYS, BECAUSE WE KEEP SORT OF
TRACK TO GET SOME IDEA OF WHAT
INSTITUTES PEOPLE COME FROM AND
SO FORTH, WHO ATTEND THE
SESSIONS.
FOR THOSE WHO HAVE MORE OR LESS
REGULARLY ATTENDED, I WANT TO
REMIND YOU THAT NEXT TUESDAY IS
THE LAST SESSION OF THE COURSE.
IT'S ON THE METABOLIC BASIS OF
AGING, AND IT WAS POSTPONED FROM
A SNOWSTORM DURING THE WINTER,
SO IT'S BEEN POSTED, CIRCULATED
AND WE'LL HAVE THINGS ON THE
WEBSITE BACKGROUND, SPEAKERS,
TOPIC AND SO FORTH.
SO TODAY'S SPEAKER IS TOM
KRIMIGIS, WHOM I READ ABOUT IN
"SCIENCE" MAGAZINE,
ACKNOWLEDGING HIS RECEIPT FROM
THE SMIT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION OF
THEIR HIGHEST AWARD FOR LIFETIME
ACHIEVEMENT IN ASTROPHYSICS IN
PARTICULAR.
HE WAS BORN I ON AN ISLAND IN
GREECE AT SOME POINT IN HIS
EARLY CAREER, EXCITED BY THE
OCCURRENCE OF SPUTNIK, WHICH
THEN INFLUENCED MUCH OF HIS
LATER LIFE.
HE CAME TO THE UNITED STATES,
WHERE HE STUDIED PHYSICS AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA AND THEN
WENT TO THE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA,
WHERE HE RECEIVED HIS PH.D., AND
THAT WAS PARTICULARLY
SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE WAS A
STUDENT OF JAMES VAN ALLEN, FOR
WHOM THE VAN ALLEN BELT IS
NAMED.
SO TOM WAS VERY MUCH INTERESTED,
INVOLVED AND EXCITED BY THE
PROSPECTS.
SO HIS CAREER PARALLELS REALLY
THE DAWN OF PLANETARY
EXPLORATION, AND HE HAS BEEN A
MAJOR PLAYER IN IT.
HE'S THE ONLY PERSON ON EARTH
WHO HAS BEEN TO EVERY PLANET IN
THE SOLAR SYSTEM, AT LEAST
INSTRUMENTALLY SPEAKING, AND
CONTINUES IN HIS RESEARCH
INTERESTS, ADVISORY CAPACITIES
AND SO FORTH.
HE IS THE EMERITUS HEAD OF THE
SPACE DEPARTMENT IN THE APPLIED
PHYSICS LABORATORY AT JOHNS
HOPKINS.
HE'S RECEIVED ALL KINDS OF
AWARDS AND CITATIONS AND SO
FORTH, AND HIS MAIN CONTRIBUTION
HAS BEEN TO ENCOURAGE THE USE OF
ROBOTIC EXPLORATION AND
DEVELOPMENT OF UNIQUE TECHNIQUES
FAR LESS EXPENSIVE THAN MANNED
EXPLORATION, AND INCREDIBLY
EFFECTIVE.
PROBABLY THE MOST DRAMATIC ONE
IN RECENT TIMES WAS THE FLY-BY
ON THE PLANET PLUTO THAT TOOK
PLACE I THINK JUST ABOUT A YEAR
AGO.
I ASKED TOM TO DISCUSS WITH US,
EXCITE US, WHICH WE DON'T NEED,
I THINK, ABOUT PLANETARY
EXPLORATION, BUT TO SHARE WITH
US SOME OF HIS EXPERIENCES AND
IN PARTICULAR, HIS COMMENTS,
THOUGHTS AND EXPERIENCE WITH THE
IDEA OF ARE WE IN A DAWN OF THE
POTENTIAL OF HUMAN SPACE FLIGHT.
I THINK MANY PHYSICISTS FEEL
THAT THE MAJOR CONTRIBUTION OF
THE ORIGINAL NASA OPERATIONS IN
SPACE WAS THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MINIATURIZATION, AND THE
MINIATURIZATION, THE CHIP, THE
TECHNIQUES AND OTHERS, OF COURSE
SPILLS OVER AND DRAMATICALLY HAS
CHANGED EVERYTHING THAT WE DO
HERE AT THE NIH AND PEOPLE DO
ALL OVER THE PLACE.
SO ONE OF THE INTRIGUING
QUESTIONS I SUPPOSE IS, IF ONE
CONTEMPLATES HUMAN SPACE FLIGHT,
WHAT KIND OF TECHNOLOGIES AND
DISCOVERIES HAVE TO BE MADE
BEFORE ANYTHING LIKE THAT IS
REMOTELY POSSIBLE.
AND POTENTIALLY THAT OFFERS VERY
EXCITING OPPORTUNITIES FOR
PEOPLE WHO ARE TRAINED TODAY IN
BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH, BIOPHYSICS,
WHATEVER IT IS.
THOSE HAVE ALSO -- LAST COMMENT,
IS THERE ANYBODY HERE WHO
DOESN'T KNOW WHAT THIS PICTURE
IS?
YOU DON'T KNOW?
OKAY.
WHY DON'T YOU TELL THEM.
DO YOU KNOW WHAT IT IS?
OKAY, PAT, WHAT IS IT?
IT'S THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE.
SO WE SHOW THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE
AS THE LOGO OF THIS COURSE
BECAUSE WE ARE, LIKE THOSE TWO
GENTLEMEN ON THE CATWALK,
CONNECTING MANHATTAN AND
BROOKLYN.
LIFE IS NEVER THE SAME WHEN A
BRIDGE HAS BEEN BUILT ON EITHER
SIDE.
SO TODAY WE'RE GOING TO HEAR
ABOUT BRIDGE BUILDING NOT ON
PLANET EARTH BUT ON PLANETS, SO
THANK YOU VERY, VERY MUCH FOR
BEING WITH US, TOM, AND WE LOOK
FORWARD TO YOUR THOUGHTS.
[APPLAUSE]
>> THANK YOU VERY MUCH, DR. AIR FOR THAT
FINE INTRODUCTION, I'M VERY
PLEASED AND SOMEWHAT INTRIGUED
TO BE HERE BECAUSE I DON'T
BELIEVE I CAN TELL YOU A LOT
ABOUT MEDICINE.
CERTAINLY WON'T BE DOING ANY
DEMYSTIFYING, HOWEVER, I DO HOPE
THAT I WILL SHED SOME LIGHT AND
BRING SOME PERSPECTIVE INTO THE
SCIENCE OF DOING RO ROBOTIC
EXPLORATION, WHAT WE KNOW NOW
THAT WE DIDN'T KNOW 60 YEARS
AGO, AND THEN I HOPE -- MENTION
ABOUT HUMAN SPACE FLIGHT
EXPLORATION, HOW POSSIBLY THAT
AND HOW SOON CAN WE EXPECT TO
SEE, AND ALSO HOW MANY THINGS
ARE THERE BUT WE DON'T KNOW THAT
GENERALLY ARE INVOLVED, NOT SO
MUCH THE TECHNOLOGY THAT WE HAVE
AT THE PRESENT TIME, ALTHOUGH
THERE IS A LOT TO BE DONE THERE,
BUT MAINLY ABOUT HOW HUMAN
SPECIES WOULD ACTUALLY FUNCTION
IN SPACE INVOLVEMENT AND HOW
LONG, AND IN THAT SCENARIO WHERE
I THINK ALL THE YOUNG FACES THAT
I SEE IN THIS AUDIENCE, I HOPE
WILL BE MAKING CONTRIBUTIONS TOO
BECAUSE A LOT OF THEM ARE TO BE
MADE BEFORE EXPLORATION BECOMES
POSSIBLE.
SO THE EXPLANATION THAT YOU SEE
ON THIS COVER SLIDE ARE
ESSENTIALLY IMAGES OF THE
PLANETS OBTAINED BY SPACECRAFT,
ACTUALLY VISIBLE, SOME HAVE
ACTUALLY STAYED THERE AS
SATELLITES OF THESE PLANETS, AND
AS YOU ALL KNOW, THE ACTIVITY
BEGUN SOME 60 YEARS AGO -- THE
HEIGHT OF THE COLD WAR --
[AUDIO INTERFERENCE]
[INAUDIBLE]
TO SOME EXTENT, THAT WAS A GOOD
THING BECAUSE THAT ACTUALLY
SPURRED THE REVOLUTION IN THE
MATH AND SCIENCES, ET CETERA,
AND THE MAN WHO WAS IN THE
MIDDLE OF THAT WAS MY ADVISOR,
JAMES VAN ALLEN, AND HE DID THE
FIRST U.S. -- EXPLORER-14 MONTHS
AFTER SPUTNIK, HE WAS AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, BUT BEFORE
THAT TIME, HE HAD BEEN A MEMBER
MEMBER -- HOW THINGS CAN EVOLVE
LIKE THAT.
ANYWAY, HE DISCOVERED THESE
RINGS OF RADIATION SCHEMATICALLY
AROUND THE EARTH THAT ARE AT
VERY HIGH ALTITUDES, THEY WERE
DUBBED BY THE PRESS VAN ALLEN
BELTS, HE NEVER CALLED THEM
THAT, WHEN THE ANNOUNCEMENT WAS
MADE, YOU CAN SEE HE WAS A
FAMOUS MAN, COVER OF "TIME"
MAGAZINE.
SO THAT WAS THE BEGINNING, AND
HE IS CONSIDERED THE FATHER OF
AMERICAN SPACE SCIENCE.
SO I'M SURE YOU HAVE SEEN THE
VIDEO THAT WAS ACTUALLY CAME OUT
AFTER AND IT SHOWS THE GAGARIN
FLIGHT IN SPACE, AND OF
COURSE -- THE NEXT THING, OF
COURSE, WAS THE FLIGHT OF ALAN
SHEPARD, THE ORIGINATE SEVEN
ASTRONAUTS PICKED BY NASA, AND
BY COMPARISON, YOU CAN SEE HOW
ANXIOUS HE WAS.
[INAUDIBLE] THE BEST WE COULD DO
WAS -- SUBORBITAL FLIGHT BUT
THERE WAS INTENSE COMPETITION AT
THE TIME.
YOU CAN SEE HERE IT CAME OUT OF
THE CAPSULE AND ON TO THE
AIRCRAFT CARRIER.
THE THING THAT WAS REALLY THE
BIG THING -- [INAUDIBLE] DID GO
TO THE MOON -- [INAUDIBLE] THAT
WAS A BIG DAY -- IT TURNED OUT
THAT ARE THE NAVIGATION WAS --
[INAUDIBLE] SO THE NEXT THING,
BUZZ ALDRIN, BUT TO GET BACK TO
THE HUMAN ASPECT LATER ON, I
WOULD LIKE TO TELL YOU HOW WE
WOULD GET TO GO TO THE PLANETS
WITH THE SPACECRAFT.
THIS IS A LITTLE SCHEMATIC THAT
I PICKED OUT OF "NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC."
PERHAPS YOU COULD SEE BETTER IF
THAT'S POSSIBLE BUT IF THAT'S
NOT POSSIBLE, WELL -- AND
OBVIOUSLY SPEEDED UP DAY AND
NIGHT, AND THE SUN IS AT THE
CENTER, AND YOU CAN SEE THE
PLANET, MERCURY, VENOUS, EARTH
AND MARS, YOU CAN SEE THE
ASTEROID BELT, YOU CAN SEE
JUPITER AND SATURN WITH THE
RING, AND URANUS AND NEPTUNE,
AND PLUTO IS NOT SHOWN IN THIS
DIAGRAM.
BUT YOU SEE, AND IT'S FAIRLY
ACCURATE, YOU CAN SEE ALL THE
MOONS -- I SHOULDN'T SAY ALL THE
MOONS BUT THE MAJOR MOONS OF THE
PLANETS.
SO THERE'S A LOT OF EXPLORING TO
BE DONE IN LOOKING AT THE
PLANETS.
AND IT WAS -- POLL SEW STATEMENT
BY THPOLICY STATEMENTBY THE NATIONAL ACADE MY OF
SCIENCES -- SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
AND TO LOOK FOR THE POTENTIAL OF
LIFE ELSEWHERE.
AND THEN SPECIFIC QUESTIONS, DID
THE PLANETS -- HOW DID THEY
ORIGINATE, HOW DID THE SOLAR
SYSTEM EVOLVE, DID LIFE BEGIN ON
EARTH AND WHAT ARE THE
CHARACTERISTICS THAT LED TO
ORIGIN OF LIFE.
AND NEEDLESS TO SAY, I'M NOT
SURE WE KNOW ANY SPECIFIC AND
DETERMINISTIC ANSWERS TO ANY OF
THESE QUESTIONS, BUT THESE ARE
THE AIM OF -- THE AGE OF
PLANETARY EXPLORATION.
THESE ARE THE PLANETS BY
SPACECRAFT, AND YOU SEE
EVERYTHING IN -- JUPITER,
SATURN, URANUS, NEPTUNE, AND YOU
CAN SEE OF COURSE -- THE EARTH
COULD JUST FIT INTO THE RED SPOT
OF JUPITER.
DOWN HERE WHAT YOU CAN SEE IS
THE ACTUAL CONSISTENCY OF SCALE,
OUR NEIGHBORS ARE ALL HERE,
JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS,
NEPTUNE, TO PLUTO, AND I WILL BE
TELLING YOU ABOUT VOYAGER LATER
ON ACTUALLY, MARS AS WE SPEAK --
ORBIT AROUND SATURN, STILL, WE
HAVE A NEW HORIZON AND THEN WE
HAVE VOYAGER 1 AND 2 WHICH WERE
LAUNCHED IN 1977, AND TO THIS
DAY, VOYAGER IS SOMEWHERE OUT
HERE.
LATER ON.
SO WHAT ABOUT THE INNER PLANETS?
HERE ARE OUR NEIGHBORS.
AND YOU LOOK AT THEM, AND YOU
SAY, JEEZ, YOU KNOW, HOW COME WE
ENDED UP IN SUCH DIFFERENT
STATES?
WE HAVE THE EARTH HERE, THEY ALL
HAVE ABOUT THE SAME DENSITY
BECAUSE OF A LOT OF ROCKS --
EXCUSE ME BECAUSE I'M GETTING
OVER A COLD AND MY VOICE IS NOT
THE BEST.
AND THE THING THAT I HAVE
HIGHLIGHTED HERE IS THE
TEMPERATURES.
MERCURY, WE GO FROM MINUS 193 ON
THE NIGHT SIDE TO 427.
NO ATMOSPHERE TO SPEAK OF.
VENUS, 462 DAY AND NIGHT.
BUT A VERY THICK ATMOSPHERE,
92 -- OF COURSE WE KNOW EARTH,
AND THEN MARS, WE HAVE MINUS 87
ON THE NIGHT SIDE TO MINUS 5, SO
IT'S BELOW ZERO ALL THE TIME
BASICALLY, EVEN AT THE EE QAI
TUR.
EQUATOR.
AND THEN YOU END UP IN TOTALLY
DIFFERENT STATES.
HERE, WATER IS BOTH LIQUID AND
SOLID AND GAS.
I'M SURE OTHERS OF YOU THAT TOOK
PHYSICS IN SCHOOL KNOW ABOUT
THAT.
THE OTHER SIGNIFICANT THING THAT
I'LL COME BACK TO IS THAT THE
MAGNETIC -- YOU SAY WHAT DOES
THAT HAVE TO DO WITH ANYTHING?
I'LL TALK TO YOU ABOUT THAT.
-- VERY SMALL AMOUNT FOR
MERCURY, NOTHING WITH VENUS AND
VERY TINY LOCALIZED FIELD IN THE
CASE OF MARS.
SO FIRST MISSION TO MARS,
MARINER 4, IT WAS LAUNCHED IN
1964.
THIS WAS MY FIRST INSTRUMENT AS
A GRADUATE STUDENT.
I HAVE HIGHLIGHTED THE IMAGING
SYSTEM BECAUSE IT WAS THE FIRST
VISIBLE IMAGER, LADIES AND
GENTLEMEN, THAT WAS EVER
INVENTED, AND IT WASN'T LOOK IK LIKE I
COULD HAVE TODAY BUT THESE ARE
THE FIRST DIGITAL IMAGES.
TYPICALLY A MINIMUM ELEVATOR --
TAKES ABOUT 200 DAYS, 228 DAYS,
SO WE FINALLY GOT THERE IN 1965,
ON JULY 15TH ACTUALLY, AND THIS
PICTURE SHOWS A BUNCH OF PEOPLE
LOOKING AT SOMETHING, AND I'M
SURE YOU ALL THINK, OH, IT'S A
A -- IT'S COMING BACK.
I'VE GOT NEWS FOR YOU.
[INAUDIBLE] WHAT WE'RE LOOKING
AT IS A RECORDER.
YOU KNOW WHAT THAT IS?
WELL, THE TOP MOST FLOOR IN THE
PEN THAT GOES UP AND DOWN.
THE BIT RATE FROM MARS WAS 8
1/3 BITS A SECOND.
AND OF COURSE YOU KNOW ABOUT
YOUR CELL PHONE IS A FEW MILLION
TIMES THAT.
IT TOOK ABOUT 23 DAYS TO PLAY
BACK ALL THE DATA.
WE DIDN'T HAVE A TAPE RECORDER
ON BOARD.
AND OF COURSE THE OBJECTIVE FOR
MY PART OF THE INSTRUMENT WITH
PROFESSOR ALLEN WAS TO SEE
WHETHER VAN A VAN ALLEN BELTS --
[INAUDIBLE] THERE ARE NO VAN
ALLEN BELTS ON MARS.
IT WAS A DISAPPOINTMENT.
BUT THE PICTURES OF MARS, THESE
ARE SOME OF THOSE THAT CAME
BACK, LOOKED LIKE YOU WERE
LOOKING AT THE MOON.
AND SOME OF YOU WHO -- ALL OF
YOU WHO ARE YOUNG DON'T KNOW BUT
A LONG TIME AGO THERE WAS THESE
IDEAS OF THE CANALS ON MARS --
EVERYBODY WAS -- I DON'T WANT TO
TELL YOU -- OF COURSE THIS
CURIOSITY OF MARS IN 2012, YOU
LOOK AT THE SOIL, YOU LOOK AT
THE MOUNTAINS AND SAY, THIS MUST
BE A NEW -- OR SOMEPLACE LIKE
THAT, AND WHAT'S THE DEAL.
WELL -- AS I'LL SHOW YOU IN A
MINUTE.
LAST YEAR YOU PROBABLY SAW IN
THE PAPERS ABOUT THESE RECURRING
LIEAE -- LATIN WORD, ON THE
SLOPES OF HALE CRATER.
SEE THESE DARK SPOTS THAT ARE
COMING DOWN IN HERE AS WELL, AND
IF YOU WANT TO LOOK IT UP, IT UP, IT
WAS PUBLISHED IN NATURE --
EVERYONE WAS WONDERING WHAT
THESE WERE.
BUT THESE ACTUALLY WERE STREAKS
FROM DUST BLOWN BY THE WIND DOWN
THE HILL.
HOWEVER, THE INSTRUMENT --
RECONNAISSANCE OSH TER, AND BY
THE WAY THIS, IS ANOTHER PLACE
ON MARS, YOU CAN SEE THE SAME
KIND OF STREAKS THAT THESE WERE
COMING OUT SEASONALLY AT TIMES
WHEN THERE WAS SPRING AND SUMMER
ON MAR, AND YOU WOUL MARS, AND YOU WOULD T HINK --
HOW COULD IT, IF THE TEMPERATURE
IS ALWAYS BELOW ZERO?
WE HAD AN INSTRUMENT ON THIS
SPACECRAFT WHICH WAS A
HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGER, MEANING IT
HAD ABOUT 544 CHANNELS, AND THE
PURPOSE OF THAT WAS YOU COULD
SHOW THE MINERALLITY OF THE
PLANET.
IF YOU WANTED TO TAKE A PICTURE
IN A COUPLE OF THESE CHAMS THAT
WERE -- OR LINES THAT WERE
PROJECTING WELL, THEN YOU WOULD
GET THE DISTRIBUTION -- WHAT MY
COLLEAGUES DID WAS THAT THEY
IDENTIFIED THE PRESENCE OF SALTS
WITHIN THE LINAE, WHAT DO THE
SALTS DO?
THEY DECREASE THE FREEZING
TEMPERATURE OF WATER, AND WE ALL
KNOW THAT BECAUSE WHEN SNOW
FALLS, WE MELT ALL THE ICE.
AND IT TURNED OUT YOU ACTUALLY
HAVE SALTY LIQUID WATER THAT
FLOWS AT TEMPERATURES AS LOW AS
MINUS 23 DEGREES.
SO THERE IS LIQUID WATER IN
UNDERGROUND RESERVOIRS THAT
ACTUALLY COMES UP SEASONALLY AND
IT GOES DOWN THE SLOPES, AND
BECAUSE IT'S SALTY, IT ACTUALLY
CAN'T DO THAT.
IT DOESN'T FREEZE DRY THIS WAY.
SO I'M GOING TO SHARE ANOTHER
RESULT ARE YOU.
WHAT I WROTE HERE IS THE SOLAR
WIND TEMPERATURE.
HOW MANY OF YOU HAVE EVER HEARD
OF THE SOLAR WIND?
DO YOU KNOW?
YOU DO?
SOME OF YOU DO?
NO.
SOLAR WIND IS A PLASMA WIND THAT
BLOWS AWAY FROM THE SUN, ABOUT A
MILLION MILES AN HOUR, AND IT
EXPANDS INTO SPACE PAST EARTH
AND THE TEMPERATURE IS A MILLION
DEGREES.
WHAT DOES THAT MEAN?
WELL, IN THE CASE OF EARTH, WE
HAVE A VERY STRONG MAGNETIC
FIELD, AND WHAT IT DOES, BECAUSE
THIS IS -- IT DEFLECTS ALL THESE
PARTICLES FROM COMING EVEN CLOSE
TO THE ATMOSPHERE, AND IT JUST
GOES HARMLESSLY BY THE EARTH.
MARS, FOR SOME REASON, HAS LOST
ITS MAGNETIC FIELD.
AND WHAT HAPPENS IS THAT IT
IMPINGES ON THE ATMOSPHERE, AND
THERE WAS A PAPER LAST YEAR FROM
THE MAIDEN SPACECRAFT, AND I
WANT TO SHOW YOU A VIDEO, AND IT
SHOWS THE MEASUREMENT THAT THEY
HAVE MADE OF THE PROCESS OF THE
SOLAR WIND COMING IN FROM THE
SUN, AND BEING -- YES, BEING
DEFLECT
DEFLECTED, AND WHAT YOU SEE HERE
IS OXYGEN IONS THAT ARE PICKED
UP OF THE ATMOSPHERE OF MARS AND
BLOWN OUT INTO SPACE.
SO THAT'S WHAT IT DOES, BECAUSE
IF THE EARTH IT LOST ITS
MAGNETIC FIELD, WE WOULDN'T HAVE
HAD AN ATMOSPHERE, I DON'T KNOW
ABOUT YOU, BUT I DON'T THINK
SOME OF US WOULD HAVE BEEN
AROUND.
SO IT MAKES A BIG DIFFERENCE
EITHER WAY THAT THE PLANETS WORK
TO HAVE A MAGNETIC FEEL.
FIELD.
WE CAN'T SPEND TOO MUCH TIME ON
ANY ONE PLANET.
THIS IS OUR SISTER PLANET, FROM
MARINER 5, MY SECOND -- AND YOU
LOOK DOWN AND YOU SEE A CLOUD
COVER.
PERIOD.
THERE IS NOTHING YOU CAN SEE IN
OPTICAL WAVELENGTHS ON THE
SURFACE OF VENUS.
AND IF YOU RECALL FROM THE TABLE
I SHOWED YOU, 92 ATMOSPHERES,
AND THE TEMPERATURE, 462 DEGREES
462 DEGREES.
HOWEVER YOU ALSO HAVE HEARD OF
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT, WHICH IS
THAT THE SOLAR RADIATION -- WE
HAVE C CO2 OR METHANE OR OTHER
GREENHOUSE GASES GETS TRAPPED,
AND WHAT HAPPENS IS IT GETS
HEATED UP A LOT, SO THE
TEMPERATURE GOES UP AND UP, THE
ATMOSPHERE IN VENUS IS ENTIRELY
CO2.
SO THOSE OF YOU WHO DON'T
BELIEVE IN GLOBAL WARMING AND
WHAT CO2 MIGHT DO TO US,
EVENTUALLY, AND HOW SOON -- THE
ONLY ISSUE IS HOW SOON IT'S
GOING TO DO IT AND WHETHER WE'RE
GOING TO TAKE -- YOU MIGHT SAY
BEING PEOPLE KNOW ABOUT THE
GREENHOUSE EFFECT?
YEAH, WE ALL LEARNED ABOUT THAT
IN SCHOOL.
BUT THIS TIME, WE MAGNIFY WITH
THE FIRST DEMONSTRATION THE
PEOPLE HAVE ABOUT WHAT IT DOES
TO PLANETS.
IT IS POSSIBLE USING RADAR BEAMS
TO ACTUALLY SCAN AND IMAGE THE
SURFACE OF A PLANET, WHICH YOU
CAN'T SEE WITH YOUR EYES.
AND THAT'S WHAT HAPPENED WITH
THE MAGELLAN SPACECRAFT, THIS IS
THE GLOBAL SURFACE OF VENOUS,
THIS IS A -- RADAR, AND YOU CAN
SEE THAT THE MOUNTAINS, LAVA
FLOWS -- [INAUDIBLE] FINALLY I
WANT TO TELL YOU ABOUT MERCURY,
WHICH WE GOT TO SEND A
SPACECRAFT TO AND ORBIT MERCURY
SINCE 2011.
THIS IS THE SPACECRAFT ON THE
VIBRATION TABLE IN OUR
LABORATORY, YOU CAN SEE THE
TECHNICIANS WHO WERE PUTTING
THINGS TOGETHER, AND SO TO GET
TO MERCURY THAT IS VERY CLOSE TO
THE SUN, IT'S ONLY A THIRD OF A
WAY TO THE SUN, IT'S NOT AN EASY
THING TO DO.
WHAT THIS VIDEO SHOWS IS THAT WE
LAUNCHED THE SPACECRAFT, THEN WE
KEPT GOING BY VENOUS.
PRETTY SOON WE SAY VENOUS --
EFFICIENTLY TO USE THE GRAVITY
OF VENOUS TO SLOW DOWN THE
SPACECRAFT.
AND BY DOING SO, YOU LET THE
SPACECRAFT SLOWLY FALL IN THE
DIRECTION OF MERCURY, AND
EVENTUALLY -- SORRY, I DIDN'T
MEAN TO DO THAT, I MEANT TO
EXPLAIN SOMETHING -- OOPS.
WOW.
DISASTER.
SORRY.
WE'LL GO BACK.
SO WE WENT AROUND THE SUN 15
TIMES BY THE TIME WE SLOWED DOWN
THE SPACECRAFT ENOUGH TO REALLY
GET TO THE ORBIT OF MERCURY, AND
FIRE A ROCKET MORTAR TO CAPTURE
THE SPACECRAFT INTO ORBIT AND I
WANT TO SHOW YOU THE EXACT
SIMULATION OF WHAT HAPPENED IN
2011, AND YOU NOTICE WE HAVE A
HEAT SEAL FROM THE DIRECTION OF
THE SUN, AND THE SPACECRAFT
ALWAYS KNOWS WHERE THE SUN IS
BECAUSE IF YOU MADE A MISTAKE
AND IT EXPOSED THE SPACECRAFT,
WHICH IS BUILT BEHIND THE HEAT
FIELD TO THE SUN, IT WOULD BE
THE END OF THE SHOW IN ABOUT 15
MINUTES.
AND HE WAS VERY SUCCESSFUL, WE
GOT TERRIFIC MEASUREMENTS OVER
FOUR YEARS ACTUALLY.
I WILL JUST SUMMARIZE WHAT WE
LEARNED.
THIS IS THE GEOLOGIC MAP OF
MERCURY.
NOBODY EVER KNEW ABOUT THIS.
AND WHAT YOU SEE IS COLORS OF
THE MINEROLOGY OF THE PLANET.
YOU'LL SEE THAT THIS TERRIFIC
CRATER, IF YOU LIKE, 1550
KILLOMETERS IN DIAMETER, IT WAS
FROM -- BALDWIN OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM EARLY IN THE LIFE OF --
AND BECAUSE THE SPACECRAFT IN
MERCURY, OF COURSE, IS THAT
CLOSE TO THE SUN, IT DOESN'T
HAVE A VERY REGULAR ORBIT AND
KEEPS PULLING DOWN -- TO THE
SURFACE, AND WE USE WHATEVER GAS
WE HAVE ON BOARD THE SPACECRAFT
TO KEEP BOOSTING UP THE ORBIT,
AND ON APRIL 30, AFTER FOUR
YEARS IN ORBIT, WE GOT --
ACTUALLY HIT THE SURFACE OF
MERCURY, THE IMPACT SPEED WOULD
BE ABOUT 8700 MILES PER HOUR AND
MADE A CRATER ABOUT 17
KILLOMETERS.
HOWEVER, IT ALL HAPPENS WHEN
THE -- WAS ON THE OTHER SIDE OF
MERCURY, WE COULDN'T SEE THE
EVENT HAPPENING, BUT THAT WE
CAPTIVATED IT, WE WERE WAITING
TO SEE IF IT'S GOING TO COME OUT
THE OTHER SIDE.
IF IT DID, WE MADE A BIG
MISTAKE.
SO TWARS IT WAS A VERY SUCCESSFUL
PROGRAM.
SO NOW, THAT'S ALL WE KNOW ABOUT
OUR INNER SOLAR SYSTEM, WE WANT
TO GO NOW TO THE OUTER SOLAR
SYSTEM, THE BIG PLANETS.
YOU SEE HERE, A TRAJECTORY
DIAGRAM THAT SHOWS THE
TRAJECTORIES OF VOYAGER 1, THE
GREEN LINE, VOYAGER 2, THEY WERE
BOTH LAUNCHED IN 1977, IN
ANOTHER YEAR WILL BE FOUR YEARS
IN SPACE.
AND WE WENT BY JUPITER AND BY
SATURN AND VOYAGER 2, BY URANUS
AND NEPTUNE, AND IN 12 YEARS, WE
ACTUALLY LOOKED AT ALL FOUR
OUTER PLANETS.
THIS PROGRAM WAS INITIALLY
CALLED -- OH AND BY THE WAY,
VERY IMPORTANT POINT I SHOULD
HAVE POINTED OUT, THAT THE WAY
THIS IS DONE IS THAT WE GO FROM
EARTH, YOU LAUNCH IT, GRAVITY
PULLS IT DOWN, WE GO TO JUPITER
AND WE BOOST IT ABOUT 13
KILLOMETERS PER SECOND.
IF THIS GOES DOWN AGAIN BECAUSE
OF SOLAR GRAVITY, WE BOOST IT
ANOTHER 15 PER SECOND AND FOR
URANUS AND SO ON, BUT IF YOU
EXCEED -- I GAVE A TALK IN GREEK
WHEN I LEFT HERE.
SO THE VOYAGER IS NOW -- THIS
POSSIBILITY, WHERE YOU CAN GO TO
ONE PLANET AND USE IT -- GRAVITY
GRAVITY, GRAVITY WELL, TO BOOST
AND ACCELERATE THE SPACECRAFT TO
ANOTHER PLANET AND THEN ANOTHER
PLANET, HAPPENS ONCE EVERY 175
YEARS.
WHEN THE PROGRAM WAS FIRST
CONCEIVED, WHEN I WAS YOUNG, IT
WAS PRESENTED TO -- AS THE OUTER
PLANET'S GUERIN TOUR, AND NIXON
SAID UH-OH, IT'S TOO EXPENSIVE.
IT WAS 1.5 BILLION -- I SAID
FORGET IT, WE'RE NOT DOING IT,
SO THE WHOLE THING WENT BACK TO
THE DRAWING BOARD, AND WE
DECIDED TO DO A PROGRAM, JUST GO
TO JUPITER AND SATURN, WE COULD
DO THAT IN FOUR YEARS WITH THIS
SPACECRAFT.
SO I'LL TELL YOU THE STORY THAT
THE SCIENCE ADVISOR TOLD ME,
THEY WENT IN -- WITH THE NASA
ADMINISTRATOR -- AT THE TIME,
AND WHICH I WAS SURPRISED WE
HAVE ANOTHER PROPOSAL, BUT
REMEMBER THAT THE LAST TIME THE
PLANETS WERE LINED UP LIKE THAT,
IT WAS JEFFERSON SITTING AT THAT
DESK, AND HE BLEW IT.
[LAUGHTER]
SO NIXON LAUGHED AND SAID ALL
RIGHT, DO TWO, WHICH IS WHAT WE
WANTED TO DO, SO WE GOT AWAY
WITH JUPITER AND SATURN.
AND OF COURSE WE ALL KNEW THAT
LAUNCH WAS NOT UNTIL 1977,
MR. NIXON WAS NOT GOING TO BE
PRESIDENT ANYMORE, AND OF COURSE
HE ENDED UP LEAVING EARLIER THAN
HE THOUGHT EVEN, SO WE MADE SURE
THAT THERE'S -- WE DESIGNED THE
MISSION AND THE SPACECRAFT AND
PUT ENOUGH FUEL ON BOARD THAT IT
WOULD HAVE THE CAPABILITY IF A
SPACECRAFT SURVIVED TO CONTINUE
ON ITS TRAJECTORY AND VISIT THE
OTHER PLANETS, SO THAT'S --
THAT'S THE SPACECRAFT AS IT SITS
IN THE OCEAN LABORATORY, THIS IS
THE INSTRUMENT THAT MY TEAM AND
I PUT TOGETHER, 825 KILOGRAMS,
465 WATTS, NOW 264, THIS IS THE
ANTENNA, IT'S ALWAYS POINTING --
THE TRANSMITTER IS ABOUT
22 WATTS.
RIGHT NOW, WITH -- ON BOARD, THE
ANTENNA -- WITHIN 10 SECONDS --
SO THAT'S VOYAGER.
THE NEW VIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
SYSTEM, WE FOUND AN EXCEPTION IN
JUNE OF 2015 AND THAT WAS PLUTO,
WHICH NOBODY KNEW ANYTHING
ABOUT.
I WON'T SPEND VERY MUCH TIME ON
ANY OF THE PLANETS.
THIS IS THE GREAT RED SPOT.
THE GANYMEDE MOONS, THE -- BIG
SURPRISE WHEN THE SPACECRAFT
WENT BY AND AFTER THE -- THE
GRADUATES NOTED THERE WAS THIS
BIG STUFF COMING OFF THE LIMB
AND THEY SAID OH, LOOK AT THAT!
-- [INAUDIBLE] TO SEE WHAT THEY
WERE SHOUTING ABOUT.
THEY SAID, O, GOD, IT TURNS OUT
THAT THE -- AT ALL TIMES, THE
STRONGEST ONE IS 10 TIMES
STRONGER THAN ANY EARTH VOLCANO,
AND THE ALTITUDE IS ABOUT 200
KILLOMETERS, -- YOU LOOK DOWN
AND YOU CAN SEE THAT MATERIAL
SORT OF ESSENTIALLY SHOULD BE --
INTO AN AREA OF THE SIZE OF
FRANCE.
THE HOT LAVA LAKES FROM ONE OF
THESE, AND THE TEMPERATURE HERE
IS 1100 DEGREES CENTIGRADE.
WHICH IS -- [INAUDIBLE] SO MANY
THINGS ABOUT MANY OF THE OTHER
MOONS.
THIS IS URANUS AND ONE OF ITS
MOONS, MIRANDA.
IT'S ON ITS SIDE.
MIRANDA IS JUST AN AMAZING
OBJECT WITH A DIAMETER AND
STRUCTURE THAT NOBODY CAN
UNDERSTAND, AND THE VOYAGER
DISCOVERED 10 NEW MOONS PLUS
ACTUALLY ADDITIONAL RINGS.
THIS IS NEPTUNE.
YOU DON'T SEE THE WHOLE THING
BUT IT HAS A BLUE SPOT, LIKE THE
RED SPOT, THEY DISCOVERED SIX
NEW MOONS, THEN IT HAS A MOON
CALLED PYTHON AND IT HAS
GEYSER-LIKE ERUPTIONS AND IT'S
IN A RETROGRADE ORBIT.
SO EVERY -- OF THESE PLANETS WAS
A BIG SURPRISE.
I DID SATURN ON PURPOSE BECAUSE
WE NOW HAVE A SPACECRAFT CALL
CALLED -- THAT IS IN ORBIT
AROUND SATURN AND SATURN HAS ALL
KINDS OF MOONS AND IT KEEPS ON
DISCOVERING MOONS, I THINK THE
NUMBER NOW IS 62 MOONS.
I WILL SAY A COUPLE OF THINGS
ABOUT THIS MOON HERE, AND THIS
OTHER MOON CALLED PYTHON,
BECAUSE IT HAS AN ATMOSPHERE
THAT'S ABOUT 60% THICKER THAN
THAT OF EARTH, AND BECAUSE THESE
ARE TWO REMARKABLE OBJECTS.
THIS ONE IS 6 TONS, VOYAGER WAS
LESS THAN 1.
I SAW THIS TO SHOW YOU THE
INSTRUMENTS THAT MY TEAM AND I
PUT TOGETHER, AND THIS IS HOW
MANY PEOPLE IT TAKES TO BUILD AN
INSTRUMENT OVER A NUMBER OF
YEARS.
IT'S NOT ONE PERSON OPERATES IT.
NOT BY A LONG SHOT.
IT TAKES A TEAM, AND I DON'T
KNOW WHOSE SLOGAN IT IS, BUT IT
DOES.
SO WE HEAR THE SOUND.
THIS IS AN IMAGE, THE SPACECRAFT
IS BACK HERE, SO YOU TAKE THAT
IMAGE IN BACK SCATTERED LIGHT,
YOU SEE VERY MANY DETAILS ABOUT
THE RING.
THE SOUND THAT YOU HEAR ARE
ELECTRONS GYRATING AROUND THE
MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE PLANET,
AND -- SOUND, BUT IF YOU WERE
THERE, YOU WOULDN'T BE ABLE TO
HEAR THEM BECAUSE THERE'S NO
AIR, BUT -- [INAUDIBLE] ANYWAY,
I JUST WANT TO POINT OUT ABOUT
THIS RING AND THIS SPOT, THAT
THE OTHER THING I WANT TO SHOW
YOU IS THIS LITTLE DOT HERE.
IF WE ZERO IN ON THE DOT, THERE
IT IS, SEE IT?
THAT'S OUR EARTH FROM A BILLION
MILES AWAY.
SO YOU LOOKED AT EARTH AND
SAYING, OH, WHAT'S THAT DOT?
SO I SAID I WILL TALK ABOUT TWO
MOONS, IT TURNS OUT THAT THIS
ONE HAS AN ICE COVER OR AN ICE
SHEET WHICH IS QUITE THICK
EXCEPT IN THE SOUTH POLE, WHERE
ALL THESE JETS ARE COMING OUT.
IT'S ONLY -- THIS WAS TAKEN BY
CASSINI TO SHOW YOU HOW YOU DO
THIS KIND OF THING, WE DECIDED
TO GO VERY CLOSE AND TAKE A LOOK
LOOK -- THIS IS AN EXACT
SIMULATION OF THE MANEUVER YOU
HAVE TO DO WITH A SPACECRAFT,
BECAUSE YOU HAVE TO POINT IN THE
RIGHT DIRECTION AT THE RIGHT
TIME, YOU CAN SEE HOW THE
SURFACE LOOKS LIKE AND THE DEPTH
THAT WE'RE COMING OUT.
AND OF COURSE THERE IS A FINITE
DANGER, THIS WAS THE ALTITUDE,
CAN YOU IMAGINE TARGETING
SOMETHING A BILLION AND A HALF
KILLOMETERS AWAY?
THAT'S ABOUT THREE TIMES -- AND
SO WE'VE GOT SLEPT DATA IN THE
FLY-BY, WE WENT BY THE SOUTHERN
HEMISPHERE, THESE ARE BIG
CREVICES, THIS IS THE -- THAT'S
WHERE THE ICE JETS ARE COMING
OUT.
BUT WE WERE ABLE TO ALSO MAKE
SOME MEASUREMENTS OF THE
COMPOSITION OF THIS STUFF.
TAKE A LOOK AT THAT.
METHANE, WATER VAPOR, SIMPLE
ORGANICS, CARBON DIOXIDE,
COMPLEX ORGANICS, CARBON
DIOXIDE.
ALL THIS ORGANIC STUFF.
FIND ITS WAY INTO A SMALL WORLD
A BILLION AND A HALF KILLOMETERS
AWAY FROM EARTH.
NOBODY KNOWS, OF COURSE.
AND IT'S A CONTINUING AREA OF
INVESTIGATION, SEVERAL TIMES
NOW, WE HAVE ANOTHER -- THE
RESOLUTION OF THE INSTRUMENT IS
NOT GOOD ENOUGH TO REALLY TELL
US WHAT KINDS OF ORGANICS YOU
HAVE.
SO WE HAVE TO GO ON.
THIS IS AN IMAGE OF THE NORTH
POLE OF TITAN.
WHAT YOU SEE HERE IS A LAKE OF
LIQUID METHANE.
THE SURFACE OF TITAN IS MINUS
180 DEGREES CENTIGRADE.
AND BY THE WAY, HERE'S THE SIZE
OF LAKE SUPERIOR.
YOU CAN SEE THAT THIS IS A HUGE
LENGTH.
NOW, HOW -- 180 DEGREES BELOW
ZERO?
WELL, BECAUSE METHANE, ITS --
POINT IS 182 DEGREES CENTIGRADE,
AND IT -- WATER ON EARTH, AND
YOU CAN HAVE -- METHANE, YOU CAN
HAVE SOLID ICE METHANE, AND YOU
CAN HAVE LIQUID METHANE.
IF WE GET A PIPELINE FROM HERE
TO EARTH, THAT WOULD SOLVE THE
ENTIRE ENERGY PROBLEM.
FOREVER.
SO -- AND THEN TITAN -- ALSO HAD
A PROBE BUILT BY THE EUROPEAN
SPACE AGENCY AND IT TOOK IMAGES
AS -- WE TOOK IMAGES AS IT FELL
TO THE GROUND.
THIS IS A LAKE, ALL THESE RIVER
BEDS, EMPTY.
ALL LIQUID METHANE, WHERE THE
CAPSULE LANDED, THIS IS WHAT THE
GROUNDS LOOKED LIKE, THESE
TURNED OUT -- COULD DO -- THIS
IS ACTUALLY -- ICE, BUT THIS IS
ABOUT -- RIGHT NEXT TO WHERE THE
CAPSULE LANDED, YOU FLIP IT OVER
AND TAKING IMAGES.
SO I WILL SPEND THE REST OF THE
TIME OF EXPLORATION POSSIBLE TO
TELL YOU TWO THINGS ABOUT PLUTO,
SINCE YOU ALL REMEMBER PERHAPS
MORE RECENTLY.
WHAT DID WE SAY?
WE TALKED ABOUT THE INNER
PLANETS, WE TALKED ABOUT THE
OUTER PLANETS.
BUT THERE'S -- THIS IS PLUTO,
AND WHEN YOU DROP THE MASK
VERSUS DISTANCE FROM THE SUN --
[INAUDIBLE] SO YOU HAVE THE
INNER PLANET, AND THERE YOU HAVE
THE OUTER PLANET.
AND THEN YOU'VE GOT PLUTO.
AND YOU LOOK AT THAT -- OKAY,
THAT MAKES SENSE.
HIGH-DENSITY OR LOW DENSITY.
-- PLUTO?
THERE IT IS.
-- FOUR TERRESTRIAL PLANETS,
FOUR GIANT PLANETS, AND ONE
MISFIT PLANET, PLUTO.
BUT IT TURNS OUT THEY HAVE THEIR
OWN IDEA AND WE DIDN'T REALLY
UNDERSTAND WHAT WAS HAPPENING IN
THE VICINITY OF PLUTO, IN THE
NIEP TIs, THERE WER'09 TIs THAT WERE DISCO VERED,
WITH THESE FUNNY NAMES, AND NOT
ONLY THAT, BUT KUIPER, THE
ASTRONOMER, FOUND THERE WERE
THOUSANDS OF OBJECTS, SMALLER,
THAT ARE OUT HERE, AND THIS IS
CALLED THE SO-CALLED KUIPER
BELT.
THE NEW VIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
IS THAT WE HAVE THE INNER
PLANET, WE HAVE THE OUTER
PLANETS, THEN WE'VE GOT THE --
AND THESE ARE SOME OF THESE THAT
YOU CAN SEE, AND OF COURSE THEY
HAVE ALL THESE FUNNY NAMES, YOU
KNOW, RUN OUT OF NAMES FROM
GREEK MYTHOLOGY AND NOW WE HAVE
ALL KINDS OF NAMES THAT ARE
COMING FROM THE HOLLYWOOD WORLD.
MAKEMAKE, SEDNA, QUACAR, ET
CETERA.
SO WE DIDN'T KNOW ALL THAT WHEN
WE WERE WERE PLANNING NEW
HORIZON.
THE WHOLE MISSION WAS LAUNCHED
IN 2006, BY JUPITER, TO MOVE
FASTER AND WE FINALLY GOT THERE
IN JULY OF 2015 AND WE'RE NOW --
ANOTHER TYPE OF THE -- 2014 WHEN
WE WILL GET THERE ON 2019, THIS
IS A PLACE, BY THE WAY -- SOUTH
OF COLUMBIA, MARYLAND.
AND THIS IS THE FINAL -- FOR THE
NEW HOR HIGH SON SPACECRAFT.
YOU SEE THESE GUYS IN UNIFORMS
AND FACE MASKS AND ALL THIS.
-- GOOD REASONS FOR THAT WHICH
WE DON'T HAVE TIME TO GO INTO.
THAT IS THE SPACECRAFT AS
ASSEMBLED.
I THOUGHT I WOULD SAY A COUPLE
OF THINGS ABOUT THE LAUNCH
VEHICLE.
200 FEET -- IT HAS NOT ONLY THE
MAIN PATH OF THE ROCKET WITH THE
LIQUID FUEL BUT IT HAS BOOSTER
ROCKETS AND ALL OF THIS TO PUSH
THIS LITTLE SPACECRAFT INTO
SPACE.
575 TONS, SPACECRAFT IS ONLY
HALF A TON.
IN OTHER WORDS, IT TAKES A
THOUSAND TO ONE TIME
THRESHOLD -- IT SHOWS YOU HOW
EXPENSIVE IT IS TO REALLY PUSH A
SMALL -- INTO SPACE AT THESE
KINDS OF SPEEDS.
SO -- [INAUDIBLE] CAPE
CANAVERAL, IT WAS A VERY --
[INAUDIBLE] THESE ARE THE
BOOSTER ROCKETS THAT I SHOWED
YOU BEFORE.
WHAT HAPPENS IS -- [INAUDIBLE]
SO THEN I TOLD YOU WE WENT BY
JUPITER TO SPEED IT UP, AND THAT
SHAIT FOR ABOUT THREE YEARS TO
GET THE DUPLICATE, AND THE
ARRIVAL DATE WAS 7/14/15.
EXACTLY 50 YEARS AFTER THE
FLY-BY OF MARINER 4 BY MARS,
1965.
A NUMBER OF YOU -- FOR MANY
YEARS BUT EVERY ONE OF THESE
OPERATIONS HAVE TO BE PROGRAMMED
AND SENT UP TO THE SPACECRAFT.
WE HAVE TO DO A - HAZARD SEARCH.
WE DID A -- WITH THE HUBBLE AND
FOUND THERE WERE FOUR MORE MOONS
THAN ANYBODY KNEW ABOUT, AND WE
HAVE TO BE SURE THAT WE'RE NOT
BEING BUMPED INTO ONE OF THEM.
ONE HAS TO FINE-TUNE THE ORBIT
AS WELL, SIMPLY BECAUSE THE
ORBIT OF PLUTO WASN'T THAT
WELL-KNOWN, AND -- ON BOARD THE
SPACECRAFT TO REALLY LOOK AT
WHAT PLUTO IS AND THEN SORT OF
TRIANGULATE, IF YOU LIKE, AND
THEN -- THE SPACECRAFT ON BOARD
SIX DAYS -- TO REALLY CORRECT
THE -- SO WE GOT TO THE RIGHT
PLACE.
WE FINALLY DID, SO THIS IS WHAT
HAPPENED ON JULY 14 OF LAST
YEAR, THE IDEA WAS THAT 114957,
THAT WAS A RECTANGLE, OR 60 BY
100 KILOMETERS AND THAT WASN'T
VERY IMPORTANT.
ALSO THE PART OF THE SYSTEM WAS
TO GO THROUGH THE SHADOW OF
PLUTO AND OF CHARON, PRINCIPAL
MOON, THAT WAS THE PLAN.
OF COURSE NO TWO PARENTS WANT
DATA ON THE GROUND, YOU HAVE TO
PULL IT WITH AN ANTENNA, BUT YOU
WANT TO MAKE THE OBSERVATIONS,
YOYOU HAVE TO POINT -- THERE,
THERE, THERE, OVER THERE.
IT MEANS THAT YOU CANNOT BE
POINTING AND COMMUNICATING WITH
A -- YOU HAVE TO DO THE WHOLE
OPERATION IN THE BLIND.
STORE THE DATA ON BOARD THE
SPACECRAFT, THEN EVENTUALLY LAY
IT ALL BACK.
AND I WANTED TO SHOW YOU WHAT I
CALL A CHOREOGRAPHY IN SPACE.
THIS IS AN EXACT SIMULATION OF
WHAT THE SPACECRAFT WAS DOING AS
HE WAS GOING BY, THESE ARE
THE -- THIS IS PLUTO AND CHARON
AND SOME OF THE OTHER MOONS, SO
THE SPACE KRAFLT WAS ALWAYS
DANCING AND POINTING, WE HAD NO
IDEA, NO INFORMATION, NO SIGNAL,
ON 19 HOURS, AND THEN IF AFTER
19 HOURS WHERE THE SPACECRAFT
WAS COMMANDED, TO LOOK BACK AT
US AND SAY HEY, I GOT IT, IF WE
DIDN'T HEAR THAT, -- THAT WILL
HAVE BEEN A BAD DAY.
SO NEEDLESS TO SAY, AS YOU KNOW
FROM THE RESULTS, THIS AS I
MENTIONED IS THE EXACT -- WHICH
IS 90 HOURS IN A MINUTE AND
40 SECONDS, BUT HE SHOWS YOU
ALSO THE DIFFERENT -- LINES SO
THE VARIOUS -- OF THE SPECTRUM
THAT THE INSTRUMENTS WERE
COVERING.
AND AFTER IS REQUIRED, OF COURSE
WE DIDN'T PASS THE PLANET AND --
FROM PLUTO.
SO I WOULD NOT SHOW YOU GOING
TO -- HERE IS -- PLUTO BEFORE
NEW HORIZONS.
THERE'S WHAT IT'S REALLY LIKE.
AND YOU PROBABLY SAW THIS HALF
SHAPED THING, WE PUT THIS
SPUTNIK PLANE UP OR AT LEAST --
THAT'S WHAT THEY CALL IT.
YOU WANT TO READ DETAILS, THE 18
MARCH "SCIENCE" THIS YEAR, IT
WAS OP TH ON THE COVER.
THESE ARE SOME OF THE PAPERS --
FOR EACH ONE OF THESE AREAS,
THIS IS CHARON OVER HERE, AND
YOU SEE THIS HUGE CRACK FROM UP
WITH SIDE TO THE OTHER, IT'S I
THINK THE LONGEST -- IN THE
WORLD RIGHT THIS MINUTE.
SUCH FEATURE THAT WE KNOW ABOUT
IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
THIS IS PART OF THE THEOLOGY,
EITHER ACTUALLY WATER MOUNTAINS,
WATER ICE, AND A COUPLE MONTHS
AGO WE'VE GOT SOME OF THE
CLOSE-UP DATA, WE KEEP PLAYING
THINGS BACK AND WE'VE ALL SENT
THE DATA BACK UNTIL THE -- FROM
THE DIFFERENCE OF PLUTO, WE CAN
ONLY TURN BACK ABOUT A THOUSAND
BEATS PER SECOND, NO, 5 BILLION
ANSWERS AWAY, SO YOU CAN SEE
THESE MOUNTAINS, IT OUR -- WE
KNOW THAT BECAUSE OF THE
SPECTROSCOPY -- END UP IN A LAKE
MADE OF SOLID NITROGEN ICE.
THERE IS A LOT OF ANALYSIS THAT
GOES ON AND -- IN THIS AREA, FOR
EXAMPLE, IT WAS POSSIBLE TO SEE
THESE WHAT COULD BE HIGH
ALTITUDE AREA -- METHANE, TURNS
OUT IT'S METHANE SNOW OVER THE
MOUNTAINS IN THIS PART -- PLUTO.
IF YOU HAD SUNGLASSES -- LAID
THE AT THE RAIN, WHICH NOBODY
UNDERSTANDS, THEY'RE FRO SEB 16
LAKES, AND THERE'S A BLUE SKY OF
PLUTO.
HOWEVER, IT HAS -- LAYERS ON
WHICH YOU CAN ACTUALLY SEE THAT
THERE ARE -- THERE'S HAZE IN THE
APPLE TREE -- BUT IT'S PUBLISHED
AGAIN.
THIS IS AN IMAGE WE WERE WAITING
OUTSIDE NEXT TO THE CONTROL TO
HEAR THE SIGNAL.
AND YOU MIGHT SAY WHAT ARE WE
DOING HERE, YOU SEE NINE
FINGERS?
THE IDEA WAS THAT THE NINTH
PLANET OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM WAS
EXPLORED IN THE 50 YEARS OF
PROGRESS.
AS YOU KNOW, IT WAS FRONT PAGE
NEWS, SOCIAL MEDIA WILL GO
CRAZY, WE MOVED THE SITE OFF
CAMPUS BECAUSE WE HAVE -- IN A
BIG WAY, GOOD THING WE DID IT,
AND I JUST WANT TO SLOW YOU, YOU
KNOW, WE ALSO HAVE BOARD OF
TRUSTEES, AND THIS PAST -- OUR
BOARD, AND THIS IS A LITTLE
MOVIE MADE IN 2011, IN SEPTEMBER
SEPTEMBER, BUT -- THE EXCITEMENT
OF WHAT REALLY HAPPENED.
THAT'S THE LABORATORY,.
AND SHE HAS BEEN A -- ADVOCATE,
WHY PLUTO -- [INAUDIBLE]
[INAUDIBLE]
>> SOMETIMES IF YOU LIVE LONG
ENOUGH, DREAMS COME TRUE.
MY DREAM CAME TRUE, IT'S COMING
TRUE TODAY, AS WE SPEAK.
>> WE WERE WAITING HERE,
COUNTING DOWN.
WHEN IT DID APPEAR --
>> PLUTO, AS NEVER SEEN BEFORE.
>> THIS IS MISSION OPERATIONS
MANAGER.
>> WE'VE RECORDED DATA FROM THE
PLUTO SYSTEM.
[INAUDIBLE]
>> I'VE HAD THE OPPORTUNITY TO
SEE THE TEAM OPERATE THIS
SPACECRAFT.
>> [INAUDIBLE] I AM JUST SHOWING
YOU NOW, COMING BACK TO WHERE
VOYAGER IS.
I TOLD YOU ABOUT THE PLANET.
THIS IS SIMULATION OF THE
INTERSTELLAR MISSION,
38.5 YEARS.
MUCH MORE THAN THE FOUR YEARS WE
PROMISED MR. NIXON, BUT -- THE
IDEA IS THAT YOU SNOW THERE IS A
BOUNDARY BETWEEN OUR SOLAR
SYSTEM AND THE GALAXY, BUT
NOBODY KNEW WHERE THAT WAS.
NOBODY KNEW HOW LONG IT WOULD
TAKE WITH VOYAGER, 62,000 -- PER
HOUR TO GET THERE.
TURNED OUT THAT IT WAS RIGHT
ABOUT HERE THIS, IS VOYAGER 1,
AND IT CROSSED ON AUGUST 25,
2012, AT A DISTANCE OF
20.2 BILLION KILLOMETERS, RIGHT
NOW IT'S AT 18.6 LIGHT HOURS.
REMEMBER THE SUNLIGHT FROM THE
SUN TAKES 8 1/2 MINUTES.
THE SIGNAL WITH A SPEED OF LIGHT
TOOK 18.6 LIGHT HOURS.
WE ALL EXPECTED THAT BALL AXE EE
WOULGALAXYWOULD BE A VERY QUIET PLACE, BUT
THAT'S NOT WHAT WE FIND.
THE SOUNDS FROM VOYAGER.
FROM THE GALAXY.
THESE ARE TSUNAMIS THAT WE RUN
INTO ABOUT ONCE EVERY NINE
MONTHS OR A YEAR.
SO QUITE AN ADVENTURE, AND THIS
IS NOW CONTINUING, WE DON'T KNOW
WHEN IT'S GOING TO END.
AS I MENTIONED VOYAGER IN 2017,
AUGUST, WILL BE -- YEARS IN
SPACE.
THE QUESTION THAT WE CAN ADDRESS
NOW IS HOW FAR ARE WE REALLY.
IF YOU DO A SCALE FROM THE SUN
TO THE PLANET, YOU KNOW, -- THE
CLOSEST SUN -- PLANET IS -- THE
SAME SCALE, IT'S ABOUT THREA
HUNDRED THOUSAND ASTRONOMICAL --
AND IF YOU ASKED HOW FAR IS --
SO ALL IN REGARD TO THE -- ALL
IN A PLANET ARE INSIDE THE
CAPITAL BUILDING, THE SUN IS THE
SIZE OF A DIME, THE EARTH IS THE
SIZE OF A BROWN SUGAR GRAIN
HERE, WITHIN THE CAPITAL SYSTEM.
-- -- VOYAGER IS ALWAYS ALL THE
WAY TO THE MIDDLE OF A
REFLECTING POOL.
THAT'S VOYAGER ONE, VOYAGER --
SO IN THIS SCALE, HOW FAR ARE WE
ON THE WAY TO?
[LAUGHTER]
SO THERE'S A LONG WAYS TO GO,
AND TO CALIBRATE THINGS PROPERLY
PROPERLY, HUMAN SPACE TRAVEL.
WE SAID -- IS 25.5 BILLION SO
TRAVELING AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT,
8.7 YEARS.
NEEDLESS TO SAY -- SUPPOSE WE
COULD GO AT THE 1% OF THE SPEED
OF LIGHT.
INSTEAD OF, YOU KNOW, 11 MILES
PER SECOND TO 1864 MILES PER
SECOND.
IT WOULD TAKE 870 YEARS, 1% OF
THE SPEED OF LIGHT.
WHAT ABOUT OUR BEST TECHNOLOGY
SO FAR?
WELL, IF A SPACESHIP COULD MOVE
FIVE TIMES FASTER THAN VOYAGER,
THEN IT WOULD TAKE 36,100 YEAR TAKE 26,000 UP 26,100 YEARS.
THERE'S ALL KINDS OF NONSENSE
THAT WE ALL READ IN THE PAPERS
ABOUT COLONIZATION, HOW WE CAN
GET ON A CRUISE SHIP AND GO OFF
AND -- TO THOSE OTHER WORLDS, SO
WHAT'S THE SOLUTION?
THE SOLUTION IS CLEAR.
UNLESS WE PROTECT EARTH FOR AT
LEAST THE NEXT FEW HUNDRED
THOUSAND YEARS, WE'RE GOING TO
BE IN DIFFICULT STRAITS.
COLONIZATION IS NOT THE ANSWER.
THAT BRINGS US TO THE ISSUE OF
HUMAN -- I WANT TO SHOW YOU SOME
SLIDES ON THINGS YOU ARE MUCH
MORE FAMILIAR WITH THAN I AM.
WHAT ARE SOME OF THE HAZARDS?
WELL, ALTERED GRAVITY, ALL KINDS
OF PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES, VISUAL
ALTERATION, CARDIOVASCULAR
DECONDITIONING, VIS DANCE FROM
EARTH, WHAT HAPPENS IF SOMEONE
GETS SICK, HOSTILE ENVIRONMENT,
CRITICAL DESIGN, TOXIC
EXPOSURES, AND THEN THERE'S THE
BEHAVIOR ISSUE, ASPECTS OF
ISOLATION AND SLEEP DISORDER.
ACUTE IN-FLIGHT EFFECTS,
LONG-TERM CANCER RISK, AND ALL
OF THESE FROM SPACE RADIATION.
AND BECAUSE I KNOW A LITTLE BIT
ABOUT THAT, I'M SURE YOU HAVE
SEEN SOME OF THIS DATA WHICH
SHOWS THAT FOR THE MUSCLE VOLUME
THAT ASTRONAUTS USE, THIS IS
FROM ONLY ABOUT 160, TWO
HYUNDAIS IN SPACE, DEPENDING ON
THE MUSCLE, CAN BE -- AND SOME
OF THE ASTRONAUTS HAVE A HARD
TIME WALKING WHEN THEY GET BACK.
WHAT ABOUT THE BONE-MINERAL
DENSITY?
WELL, THAT DROPS QUITE A BIT AS
WELL.
AND THESE ARE FROM LIMITED
SPEIGHTS.
IN SPACE.
BUT THE ONE THAT IS REALLY EVEN
MORE DIFFICULT IS THE RADIATION
EXPOSURE --, AND THE --
RADIATION FOR A YEAR IS ABOUT
1 OF 1.
NUCLEAR REACTOR WALKER -- 2.
SPACE SHUTTLE, 10 DAYS, IT'S
ABOUT 5.
THE NEWS STATION, THE RUSSIAN
SPACE STATION, 90 DAYS WAS ABOUT
70.
A THOUSAND DAYS TO MARS, TAKES
ABOUT 8, 9 MONTHS TO GET THERE,
ANOTHER YEAR TO STAY THERE,
ANOTHER YEAR TO COME BACK,
BASICALLY A THOUSAND DAYS, WELL
WELL, -- WHAT DOES THAT ?EEN
IT'S KIND OF A -- UNION THAT
SAYS IF YOU ARE EXPOSED TO A --
MEANS THAT YOUR PROBABILITY OF
DYING FROM CANCER INCREASES BY
5%.
I WILL GET INTO THAT IN A LITTLE
BIT.
SO A LITTLE ABOUT THIS SPACE
CIRCULATION PATH. THERE ARE TWO
SOURCES.
ONE IS THE GLA LACTIC -- AND THE
OTHER IS THE SO-CALLED SOLAR
PARTICLE EVENTS, VERY
PENETRATING.
BY THE WAY, I'M JUST SHOWING YOU
DATA FROM THIS SLIDE IN
PARTICULAR, AND OTHERS ARE FROM
THE NATIONAL ADVISORY COUNCIL
JOINT MITT EE FROJOINT COMMITTEE, FROM LAS T YEAR,
A YEAR AGO.
WHAT YOU SEE IS, WITHOUT -- HOW
DOES IT CHANGE -- THESE ARE ALL
QUESTION MARKS.
WITHOUT ANSWERS.
JUST NOTE THE FOLLOWING, THE
COSMIC GRADE THAT WE TALKED
ABOUT, THIS IS HOW HIGH IN
ENERGY THEY CAN BE, A THOUSAND.
WHAT DOES THAT THOUSAND MEAN.
WHEN THE SUN BLOWS, IT PUTS OUT
A MILLION TIMES MORE PARTICLES,
AND IT'S NOT AS HIGH IN ENERGY,
THEY KIND OF -- ABOUT THREE
TIMES -- TO BREN BRING THIS HOME, I
PUT THIS TOGETHER.
IT SHOWS THE -- THAT IT TAKES TO
STOP AN E ELECTRON OR A PROTON FOR
A HUMAN ELEMENT.
REMEMBER THE COSMIC GRADES ARE A
THOUSAND.
SO -- IT MEANS THAT -- A
METER -- TO STOP IT.
FOR SOLAR -- PARTICLES, LET'S
SAY YOU NEED -- YOU NEED ABOUT
2 INCHES OR MILLIMETERS.
IF YOU STOP AT 300, YOU PROBABLY
NEED ABOUT 4 INCHES.
IF YOU CAN IMAGINE BUILDING A
SPACECRAFT THAT HAS THIS BIG
WALL, THEN YOU WOULD NEED A
NUCLEAR ROCKET OFF THE GROUND
AND HE'S GOING TO BE VERY SLOW.
SO THAT IS NOT A SOLUTION.
SO HOW DOES ONE THIS IS
ACCORDING TO NASA'S WORK, THEY
DEVELOPED A MODEL, THEY HAVE A
MODEL THAT HAS BEEN REFINED --
AT THE NATIONAL SPACE RADIATION
LAB.
ACUTE RADIATION SYNDROME FROM
SOLAR PARTICLE EVENTS AND IT
TALKS ABOUT THE -- YOU CAN GET A
FEW SLIVERS IN A FEW HOURS WHICH
MEANS YOU'RE DEAD YET CAUGHT OUT
IN THE OPEN.
RADIATION EXPOSURE MAY RESULT
IN -- CATARACT -- YOU TAKE --
GET BACK AND EVERYBODY IS GOING
TO HAVE CATARACTS.
IT'S THE REST OF COURSE --
SYSTEMS AND -- REENT RISKS ARE BEING
DEFINED, ANIMAL MODELS -- TO
ASSESS -- SO MANY OF YOU IN THIS
AUDIENCE, THESE ARE MANY, MANY
FACTS THAT YOU COULD BE WORKING
ON IN THE -- ABOUT DEFINING THE
RISK.
SPECIFICALLY FOR RADIATION AT
MARS, TALKING ABOUT INDIVIDUAL
SENSITIVITY BIOMARKERS WHERE
THERE IS A FUNCTION OF AGE
AND/OR SEX, SPACE RADIATION
ENVIRONMENTAL MODEL, OF COURSE
THIS MUCH WE ALREADY KNOW, IN
MISSION AND POST MISSION,
PERSONALIZED CANCER SCREENING,
BIOMARKERS, HOW YOU'RE
REQUESTING TO MEASURGOING TOMEASURE THINGS , BUT IT DOESN'T
SAY WHAT THE SOLUTION IS.
AND OF COURSE THE OBJECTIVE IS
REDUCTION IN TOTAL RISK.
IT IS KIND OF --, IF YOU LIKE,
YOU ASK THE QUESTION, DON'T KNOW
THE ANSWER, YOU SAY WELL, I'M
GOING TO DO THIS, HERE'S MY PLAN
PLAN, HERE IS ONE OF THE
SLIDES -- SORT OF MAXIMUM, SORT
OF MINIMUM, NONE OF THEM GET
INTO THAT.
AMOUNT ABOVE 3% STANDARD, NOTICE
THIS.
AFTER THE -- AS KNOTS,
LIFETIME -- CANCERS ABOUT 20%.
HERE ARE SOME OF THE CONCLUSIONS
THAT THEY PRESENTED.
THAT -- RISKS HAVE BEEN
IDENTIFIED AND -- IN PLACE TO
PROTECT -- STANDARDS.
THERE IS REALLY NO CLEAR
STATEMENT ABOUT ANY SOLUTION.
[INAUDIBLE] BY THAT TIME, THE
RICHEST COMMUNITY WILL HAVE
DISCOVERED THE PILL THAT THE
ASTRONAUTS CAN TAKE THAT WILL --
ALL KINDS OF RADIATION.
SO HOW DO WE LIKE THAT?
THERE ARE NO -- CAN BE
CONSIDERED MISSION STOPPERS.
BECAUSE WE HAVE DEFINED WHAT THE
STANDARDS OUGHT TO BE.
AND THEN DEGREE OF HONESTY,
SORRY ABOUT THAT, HANG ON A SEC.
I WAS HERE POINTING OUT THERE
ARE NO QUICK EFFORT, AND THEN
DOWN HERE, IT SAYS RADIATION
STANDARDS WOULD NOT CURRENTLY BE
MET.
SO DO YOU SEE ANY OXYMORONS HERE
HERE, -- [INAUDIBLE] THESE ARE
THE MAIN THINGS THAT I WANTED TO
BRING UP TO YOUR ATTENTION AS
YOU CAN SEE WE'RE A LONG WAYS
AWAY FROM SAYING, OH, WOULD THE
SPACECRAFT TAKE A CREW, THEY
WILL GO TO MARS, THERE IS NO
ASSURANCE THAT WE CAN BRING THIS
CREW BACK HEALTHY, AND MAYBE NOT
EVEN ALIVE.
AND THAT KIND OF CONCLUDES MY
PRESENTATION.
I TOLTHANK YOU VERY MUCH.
[APPLAUSE]
>> SO IN ALL FAIRNESS, WHEN
RICHARD NIXON CANCELED THE GRAND
TOUR -- GRAND TOUR -- FLIGHTS,
ONE OF HIS COMPLAINTS WAS, WHAT,
YOU'RE GOING TO ADVANCE THE
TECHNOLOGY THAT FAR IN THOSE
MANY YEARS, AND YOU CAN'T EVEN
TELL ME YOU HAVE THE TECHNOLOGY
NOW TO DO IT?
AND WASN'T IT TRUE THAT -- AND
ISN'T IT STILL TRUE THAT YOU
DON'T PLAN FOR TODAY'S
TECHNOLOGY, WHICH IS ACTUALLY
SORT OF HOWL YOU DISCUSSE HOW YOU DISCUSSE D IT AT
THE BEGINNING, YOU PLAN FOR
TOMORROW'S TECHNOLOGY, YOU PUSH
FOR THAT TECHNOLOGY AND THEN YOU
GET TO THAT POINT IN TIME TO
MAKE THE LAUNCH.
SO AREN'T YOU SORT OF IGNORING
THAT PIECE WHEN YOU TALK ABOUT
PERSON SPACE FLIGHT?
I'M TEASING A LITTLE BIT, IT'S
AN OPENING TO LET YOU TALK ABOUT
THAT NOTION OF PLANNING AHEAD.
AND THE LOSS OF TRACKING OF THE
VOYAGER, THE PHASE LOCKING OF
THE TRANSMITTER VOYAGER AND HOW
MODERN TECHNOLOGY AT THE TIME
ALLOWED US TO RECAPTURE THAT
SIGNAL.
LATER I'LL TELL YOU WHY I KNOW
ALL THAT.
>> GOOD QUESTION.
JUST FOR THE RECORD, MR. NIXON
DIDN'T MAKE ANY TECHNICAL
ARGUMENTS, HE SAID IT COST TOO
MUCH.
YOU CAN'T DO IT.
BUT ON THE SEC POINT, OF COURSE
WE ALL PLAN FOR TECHNOLOGY THAT
WE MAY NOT HAVE AGAIN AT THE
TIME.
BUT YOU HAVE TO HAVE A VISION OF
HOW YOU'RE GOING TO GET THERE
AND -- IN THE CASE OF VOYAGER,
YOU KNOW, THE PLANETS WERE LINED
UP, AND IF WE WERE NOT CAPE
CANAVERAL AND N. AUGUST OF 77,
77, -- MANY OF US, WE WANT TO DON'T WANT T O
WAIT THAT LONG.
SO THERE IS TECHNOLOGY AND THERE
IS TECHNOLOGY.
THERE ARE THINGS THAT YOU CAN
FORESEE -- THERE'S TECHNOLOGY
AND THERE IS SCIENCE -- AND IN
TRYING TO DO A MISSION ON A
FINITE TIMETABLE, YOU BETTER
HAVE A PLAN OF HOW YOU'RE GOING
TO GET THERE, AND AS CAN YOU SEE
FROM THE LIST, ALL WE DID IS WE
HAVE DEFINED WHAT THE STANDARDS
OUGHT TO BE.
WE DIDN'T SAY AND HERE IS A PLAN
THAT WE HAVE BY 2029, IT WILL
PRODUCE THE FOLLOWING THAT WE
NEED.
IN THE CASE OF THE RADIATION
ISSUE, NOBODY WILL EVER BE ABLE
TO REALLY STOP COSMIC -- AND YOU
CAN ACCEPT THE RISK OF
EVERYBODY -- NO BIG DEAL.
THAT'S THE END OF THAT.
BUT WHAT ABOUT IF THERE IS A BIG
SOLAR EXPLOSION IF YOU DON'T
HAVE A -- WHERE THE CREW CAN GO
AND STAY FOR A FEW HOURS AT
LEAST UNTIL THE BIG PART OF THE
RADIATION -- IS OVER, THEY'RE
GOING TO DIE SO WHO'S GOING TO
TAKE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THAT AND
WHO'S GOING TO REALLY MAKE THE
DECISION THAT THEY'RE EXPENDABLE
?L OUR SOCIETY DOES NOT CONDONE
THINGS LIKE THAT.
IT'S NOT GOING TO HAPPEN.
YOU KNOW, YOU'VE READ ABOUT THE
MARS 1, THESE PEOPLE WHO ARE
GOING TO TAKE PRIVATE COMPANY --
TAKE PEOPLE TO MARS WITH NO
GUARANTEE OF COMING BACK AND
THEY GOT 8,000 APPLICANTS.
THEY SLECTD IS DOWN TO 1800,
THEY WERE AMAZED WHERE PEOPLE
TOOK IT SERIOUS, BUT IN PRIVATE
PROPERTY, I SUPPOSE CAN DO THAT
IF PEOPLE SIGN A PIECE OF PAPER
AND THEY SAY -- ABOUT COMING
BACK.
BUT HOW DO YOU DO THAT AS A
GOVERNMENT?
BUT NOW THE QUESTION ABOUT HOW
CAN YOU FORESEE TECHNOLOGY?
OF COURSE WE CAN'T.
HOW THE THING -- ABOUT -- OTHER
PEOPLE WHO ARE GOING TO SEND A
THOUSAND CHIPS, SPACECRAFT --
WITH 20% OF THE SPEED OF LIGHT.
IT WAS IN THE PAPERS ABOUT A
MONTH AGO.
IT REFLECTS THE LIGHT, THEN OF
COURSE THAT MEANS IT GETS
ACCELERATED BY THE -- -- REFLECT
ALL THE LIGHT.
IF 1,000 OF A PERCENT DOES NOT
GET REFLECTED, WE WILL THEREFORE
VAPORIZE THE TIME IN SPACE.
THERE IS NO TECHNOLOGY IN THE
FORESEEABLE FUTURE THAT ANYBODY
KNOWS ABOUT THAT WOULD FIND A
MATERIAL AND WHO HAVE THAT KIND
OF REFLECTIVE PROPERTIES, SO ALL
I'M SAYING IS THAT WE HAVE TO BE
VERY OBJECTIVE AND WE CANNOT
TRUST TOTALLY THEORETICAL
SCHEMES AND HAND WAVING ABOUT
WHAT WE CAN ACTUALLY DO.
AS -- I WENT TO A SEMINAR ABOUT
SAYS I CAN TELL YOU ONE THING,
IN GOD WE TRUST -- DATA, SO
PEOPLE HAVE TO BRING DATA.
>> ANYONE ELSE?
OKAY.
>> SO THE HSS IS SUPPOSED TO
LAUNCH IN 2017, I THINK THE
SCHEDULED LAUNCH IS 2017.
THE NEW NASA MANNED ROCKET.
>> OH.
>> FIRST UNMANNED LAUNCH.
>> SLS.
>> SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEM, RIGHT.
THAT'S A HUGE INVESTMENT THAT
THE U.S. GOVERNMENT IS
UNDERTAKING WITH THE GOAL OF
SENDING PEOPLE TO MARS BY THE
2030s, AT LEAST THAT'S HOW IT
WAS PITCHED AT THE SCIENCE --
NATIONAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
FESTIVAL EARLIER THIS -- LAST
MONTH.
GIVEN THE FACT THAT THERE HASN'T
BEEN ANY ADVANCES IN RADIATION
PROTECT, WHAT DO YOU SEE IS THE
FUTURE OF THE SLS PROGRAM AND
MANNED LAUNCHES?
>> WELL, IT'S GOING TO HAPPEN
BECAUSE THE SLS AS A ROCKET
PROJECT HAS A LOT OF USES NOT
OHM FOR THE HUMAN SPACE LIGHT
PROGRAM BUT FOR EXAMPLE THE OSH
TER, TAKE A BIG SPACECRAFT,
LAND -- THE ICE, THINGS LIKE
THAT, THERE IS ANOTHER ONE WE'RE
WORKING ON CALLED THE
INTERSTELLAR PROBE THAT IN 20
YEARS WILL GO PAST JUPITER, PAST
VOYAGER, BECAUSE VOYAGER IS
GOING TO DIE IN ABOUT 2028.
SO S SLS -- I THINK TO -- AS THE
ROCKET THAT'S GOING TO TAKE
PEOPLE TO MARS IS PERHAPS A
LITTLE BIT -- YOU KNOW, SPACE X
IS DEVELOPING A ROCKET THAT WILL
SLAP TOGETHER THREE OF THEIR --
I THINK AND THEY JUST SIGNED AN
AGREEMENT WITH NASA TO HELP TO
LAND -- ON MARS BUT IT IS GOING
TO BE WITHOUT HUMAN -- BUT IT
WILL BE BIG ENOUGH, AND THEY
INTEND TO -- SO I THINK THIS IS
MORE THAN JUST AN ISSUE OF THE
ROCKET.
IT'S WHAT DO YOU DO TO ASSURE
THAT YOU CAN ACTUALLY TAKE
PEOPLE THERE AND BRING THEM BACK
ALIVE AND WELL.
AND THAT'S THE HARD PART.
I THINK WE'RE GOING TO HAVE A
LONG WAYS BEFORE WE'RE ABLE TO
REASSURE THE PUBLIC AND CONGRESS
AND EVERYBODY ELSE THAT THIS CAN
BE DONE, AND I'M SEURL NOBODY AT
NASA WILL TELL YOU THAT WE CAN
DO IT.
>> [INAUDIBLE] WHICH IS NOT VERY
OPTIMISTIC, SO WHERE WE ARE
GOING TO PUT OUR MONEY INTO
SPACE?
IS THERE AN AREA WHERE IT MIGHT
BE GIVING US GAINFUL
INFORMATION?
>> IN AN INVESTMENT SENSE OR --
>> YES.
>> WELL, I'M NOT SURE ABOUT -- I
DON'T KNOW A WHOLE LOT ABOUT THE
ECONOMICS OF SPACE.
I KNOW THAT SPACE ACTIVITIES ARE
PROBABLY LIKE 3 OR $4 BILLION A
YEAR, OBSERVATION, PROGRAMS,
DEVELOPMENT, LANDSCAPE, ALL
KINDS OF THINGS.
MANY PRIVATE COMPANIES.
BUT I COULDN'T TELL YOU WHERE TO
GO AND PUT YOUR MONEY.
AS FOR BASIC RESEARCH AND
EXPLORATION, I DIDN'T THINK
PRIVATE INDUSTRY WOULD EVER GO
THERE.
THEY WOULD NOT INVEST MONEY FOR
THE -- KNOWLEDGE UNLESS THEY CAN
BE ASSURED OF A PROFIT.
-- [INAUDIBLE] AND THERE'S THE
POSSIBILITY OF PROFIT, PRIVATE
INDUSTRY STEPS IN, AND THEY
FOUND AS WE HAVE SEEN IN ALL
OTHER AREAS OF EARTH OBSERVATION
AND COMMUNICATION AND I THINK
IT'S A VERY GOOD -- THAT WE HAVE
COMPANIES LIKE SPACE X AS WELL
AS -- THE AMAZON, THAT THEY'RE
MOVING THE SAME DIRECTION
BECAUSE THERE IS MONEY TO BE
MADE, BUT I DON'T THINK YOU SEE
MR. BRANSON SPENDING A LOT OF
MONEY TO GO TO MARS.
>> THANK YOU FOR THAT
FASCINATING PRESENTATION.
TWO-PART QUESTION.
SO THE FIRST IS THE SLIDE YOU
SHOWED US OF NEW HORIZONS
PERFORMING ALL SORTS OF
MANEUVERS AS IT APPROACHED
PLUTO.
I'M KEER JUST HOW MUCH OF THAT
WAS PREPROGRAMMED BY YOUR
LABORATORY, LIKE BEFORE IT GOT
THERE, OR WAS IT AUTONOMOUS,, DO
YOU THINK OUR CAPACITY FOR
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE WILL
EXCEED OUR CAPACITY FOR HUMAN
SPACE FLIGHT?
>> THE QUESTION ON HOW MUCH WAS
PREPROGRAMMED -- ALL OF IT.
WHEN YOU HAVE AROUND THIS
LIFETIME, FOR THE SIGNAL TO GO
TO PLUTO, AND -- TO GET BACK AND
GET THE ANSWER OF WHETHER -- YOU
REALLY HAVE TO PREPROGRAM IT,
AND IN SPITE OF ALL THAT, WE
ACTUALLY LOST A SPACECRAFT ON
FOURTH OF JULY FOR ABOUT TWO
HOURS.
--
>> [INAUDIBLE]
>> WELL -- IN THE CASE WHERE WE
LOST IT, WE HAVE REDUNDANCY AND
COMPUTER -- AND WE DID THAT AND
WE DIAGNOSED WHAT HAPPENED AND
SO ON.
BUT ALL OF IT HAS TO BE DONE
ESSENTIALLY IN ADVANCE, TESTED,
AND THEN YOU HOPE FOR THE BEST.
IF YOU MAKE A MISTAKE.
THE SECOND PART GOES ABOUT --
INTELLIGENCE, I THINK YOU MEAN
BY THAT WHETHER THE SPACECRAFT
WOULD KIND OF DO ITS OWN?
>> YES.
>> YOU KNOW, IN THE SPACE --
COMPUTER, WE HAD SEVERAL MOLDS,
AND IF WE HAD NOT ABLE TO
RECOVER THE SPACECRAFT WHEN
SOMETHING HAPPENED WITH THE MAIN
COMPUTER, WE HAD A
SEQUENCE
WHERE YOU KNEW HOW TO GET THE
MINIMAL SET OF DATA IRRESPECTIVE
OF WHETHER YOU HAVE ANY CONTACT
WITH EARTH.
I DON'T KNOW IF YOU WOULD CALL
IT ARTIFICIAL INTEL JEPS,
HOWEVER, IT'S NOT THAT THE
SPACE -- DECIDED ON THE SPOT, WE
JUST KNEW WE HAD THIS BACKUP
LOAD THABACKUPMODE THAT IF ALL ELSE FAILS, YOU
CAN GO TO THAT.
-- INTELLIGENCE WOULD ACTUALLY
BE ABLE TO BE INTRODUCE
NEIGHBORHOOD FUTURE MISSIONS, I
THINK IT'S INEVITABLE FOR LONG,
LONG TERM MISSION.
YOU CAN'T JUST -- YOU HAVE TO DO
IT.
AND THAT HAS BEEN PART OF THE
SPACE PRP PROGRAM ALL ALONG, EVEN
THOUGH ENVOY JER, W ON VOYAGER, WE HAD
SOME -- MIND YOU -- SEEMED TO
KNOW A LOT ABOUT -- BECAUSE OF
CAPACITOR THAT OPENED UP AN THE
LOOP AND WE COULDN'T
COMMUNICATE, AND THEN WE FIGURED
OUT HOW TO DO THAT, NOT
BECAUSE -- TECHNOLOGY BUT
BECAUSE SOME SMART ENGINEER SAID
OH -- COMMANDS AND GO OVER
EVERYTHING -- BUT WE CAN'T
COMMUNICATE AND WE'VE BEEN
WORKING FOR 37 YEARS.
s SO THAT IS THE DIRECTION
THAT WE'RE MOVING.
EXPWHRR I WAS
>> I WAS WONDERING IF YOU CAN
COMMENT ON THE CHALLENGER SPACE
SHUTTLE DISASTER.
I READ ABOUT THE POWERPOINT
PRESENTATION WHICH DID MENTION
THE RISK OF THE DEBRIS, HOW
POWERFUL -- HOW STRONG THE
MATERIAL WAS TO ABSORB THE
IMPACT OF THE FOAM, AND IN THE
SAME SLIDE OR --
>> YOU'RE THINKING OF COLUMBIA,
NOT CHALLENGER.
>> COLUMBIA, SORRY.
>> I THINK THAT SHOWS YOU THE
LIMITATIONS OF BOTH OUR
KNOWLEDGE BUT MOSTLY OF -- HOW
SHOULD I SAY -- NOT
IRRESPONSIBILITY BUT LACKFULNESS
IN ASKING THE HARD QUESTIONS AND
THEN FOLLOWING THEM UP.
AND THAT'S THE CASE OF BOTH
CHALLENGER AND COLUMBIA, BECAUSE
PEOPLE SAID OH, WELL, WE'VE SEEN
STUFF COME UP BEFORE AND IT'S
OKAY.
I HAVE SEEN IN THE ROBOTIC
EXPLORATION CASES WHERE IF YOU
DON'T -- YOU SEE SOMETHING ONCE
AND YOU SAY OH, THEN WE MUST BE
OKAY, IT'S GOING TO COME BACK
AND BITE YOU.
THERE'S NO TWO WAYS ABOUT THAT.
YOU REALLY HAVE TO CHASE IT
DOWN, FIND THE ANSWER, AND FIX
IT.
THAT'S NOT WHAT WAS DONE IN THE
CASE OF COLUMBIA, AND OF COURSE
IN THE CASE OF CHALLENGER, AS
YOU KNOW, THE PEOPLE WHO BUILT
THE ROCKET WERE TELLING NASA,
DON'T DO IT, THERE'S GOING TO BE
A DISASTER, AND THE MANAGERS
OVERALL -- WHAT THEY SAID,
>> THAT SLIDE REMINDED ME OF
THAT BECAUSE THE SLIDE THAT YOU
HIGHLIGHTED IN THE END, THE TOP
OF THE SLIDE AND THE BOTTOM, HOW
IT WAS CONTRADICTORY TO --
>> SO PEOPLE HAVE TO --
[INAUDIBLE] HAVE TO CHECK THE
BOX.
BUT YOU CAN'T MAKE REALITY GO
AWAY.
>> LET ME TAKE MY PREROGATIVE
AND ASK A QUESTION THEN I THINK
WE SHOULD LET YOU RUN ALONG,
WONDERFUL SESSION.
MY QUESTION IS, GIVEN THE
HOSTILE ENVIRONMENTS FOR LIFE AS
WE KNOW IT ON EARTH, WHAT IS
YOUR FEELING ABOUT THE URGENCY
OF EXPLORING THE SOLAR SYSTEM
FOR LIFE FORMS OR -- STRUCTURES
STRUCTURES --
>> YOU CAN ANSWER THE QUESTION
PROBABLY BETTER THAN I, WE NEED
THE NEW KNOWLEDGE, BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITY IN THE -- [INAUDIBLE]
TO ANSWER YOUR QUESTION, I
THINK -- HAS TO KNOW, PLACE
WHERE BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY --
CONDITIONS ARE AS THEY ARE, WE
ARE GOING TO HAVE TO EXPLORE
BOTH MARS AND THE UNDERGROUND
AND EVEN PLACES LIKE -- WHAT
ARE -- ALL THE ORGANICS DOING --
I THINK THOSE ARE QUESTIONS THAT
HUMANITY HAS TO ANSWER.
>> OKAY.
LISTEN, I WANT TO THANK YOU.
[APPLAUSE]