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GORGIAS By Plato
Translated by Benjamin Jowett PERSONS OF THE DIALOGUE: Callicles, Socrates,
Chaerephon, Gorgias, Polus. SCENE: The house of Callicles.
CALLICLES: The wise man, as the proverb says, is late for a fray, but not for a feast.
SOCRATES: And are we late for a feast? CALLICLES: Yes, and a delightful feast; for
Gorgias has just been exhibiting to us many fine things.
SOCRATES: It is not my fault, Callicles; our friend Chaerephon is to blame; for he would
keep us loitering in the Agora. CHAEREPHON: Never mind, Socrates; the misfortune
of which I have been the cause I will also repair; for Gorgias is a friend of mine, and
I will make him give the exhibition again either now, or, if you prefer, at some other
time. CALLICLES: What is the matter, Chaerephon—does
Socrates want to hear Gorgias? CHAEREPHON: Yes, that was our intention in
coming. CALLICLES: Come into my house, then; for Gorgias
is staying with me, and he shall exhibit to you.
SOCRATES: Very good, Callicles; but will he answer our questions? for I want to hear from
him what is the nature of his art, and what it is which he professes and teaches; he may,
as you (Chaerephon) suggest, defer the exhibition to some other time.
CALLICLES: There is nothing like asking him, Socrates; and indeed to answer questions is
a part of his exhibition, for he was saying only just now, that any one in my house might
put any question to him, and that he would answer.
SOCRATES: How fortunate! will you ask him, Chaerephon—?
CHAEREPHON: What shall I ask him? SOCRATES: Ask him who he is.
CHAEREPHON: What do you mean? SOCRATES: I mean such a question as would
elicit from him, if he had been a maker of shoes, the answer that he is a cobbler. Do
you understand? CHAEREPHON: I understand, and will ask him:
Tell me, Gorgias, is our friend Callicles right in saying that you undertake to answer
any questions which you are asked? GORGIAS: Quite right, Chaerephon: I was saying
as much only just now; and I may add, that many years have elapsed since any one has
asked me a new one. CHAEREPHON: Then you must be very ready, Gorgias.
GORGIAS: Of that, Chaerephon, you can make trial.
POLUS: Yes, indeed, and if you like, Chaerephon, you may make trial of me too, for I think
that Gorgias, who has been talking a long time, is tired.
CHAEREPHON: And do you, Polus, think that you can answer better than Gorgias?
POLUS: What does that matter if I answer well enough for you?
CHAEREPHON: Not at all:—and you shall answer if you like.
POLUS: Ask:— CHAEREPHON: My question is this: If Gorgias
had the skill of his brother Herodicus, what ought we to call him? Ought he not to have
the name which is given to his brother? POLUS: Certainly.
CHAEREPHON: Then we should be right in calling him a physician?
POLUS: Yes. CHAEREPHON: And if he had the skill of Aristophon
the son of Aglaophon, or of his brother Polygnotus, what ought we to call him?
POLUS: Clearly, a painter. CHAEREPHON: But now what shall we call him—what
is the art in which he is skilled. POLUS: O Chaerephon, there are many arts among
mankind which are experimental, and have their origin in experience, for experience makes
the days of men to proceed according to art, and inexperience according to chance, and
different persons in different ways are proficient in different arts, and the best persons in
the best arts. And our friend Gorgias is one of the best, and the art in which he is a
proficient is the noblest. SOCRATES: Polus has been taught how to make
a capital speech, Gorgias; but he is not fulfilling the promise which he made to Chaerephon.
GORGIAS: What do you mean, Socrates? SOCRATES: I mean that he has not exactly answered
the question which he was asked. GORGIAS: Then why not ask him yourself?
SOCRATES: But I would much rather ask you, if you are disposed to answer: for I see,
from the few words which Polus has uttered, that he has attended more to the art which
is called rhetoric than to dialectic. POLUS: What makes you say so, Socrates?
SOCRATES: Because, Polus, when Chaerephon asked you what was the art which Gorgias knows,
you praised it as if you were answering some one who found fault with it, but you never
said what the art was. POLUS: Why, did I not say that it was the
noblest of arts? SOCRATES: Yes, indeed, but that was no answer
to the question: nobody asked what was the quality, but what was the nature, of the art,
and by what name we were to describe Gorgias. And I would still beg you briefly and clearly,
as you answered Chaerephon when he asked you at first, to say what this art is, and what
we ought to call Gorgias: Or rather, Gorgias, let me turn to you, and ask the same question,—what
are we to call you, and what is the art which you profess?
GORGIAS: Rhetoric, Socrates, is my art. SOCRATES: Then I am to call you a rhetorician?
GORGIAS: Yes, Socrates, and a good one too, if you would call me that which, in Homeric
language, 'I boast myself to be.' SOCRATES: I should wish to do so.
GORGIAS: Then pray do. SOCRATES: And are we to say that you are able
to make other men rhetoricians? GORGIAS: Yes, that is exactly what I profess
to make them, not only at Athens, but in all places.
SOCRATES: And will you continue to ask and answer questions, Gorgias, as we are at present
doing, and reserve for another occasion the longer mode of speech which Polus was attempting?
Will you keep your promise, and answer shortly the questions which are asked of you?
GORGIAS: Some answers, Socrates, are of necessity longer; but I will do my best to make them
as short as possible; for a part of my profession is that I can be as short as any one.
SOCRATES: That is what is wanted, Gorgias; exhibit the shorter method now, and the longer
one at some other time. GORGIAS: Well, I will; and you will certainly
say, that you never heard a man use fewer words.
SOCRATES: Very good then; as you profess to be a rhetorician, and a maker of rhetoricians,
let me ask you, with what is rhetoric concerned: I might ask with what is weaving concerned,
and you would reply (would you not?), with the making of garments?
GORGIAS: Yes. SOCRATES: And music is concerned with the
composition of melodies? GORGIAS: It is.
SOCRATES: By Here, Gorgias, I admire the surpassing brevity of your answers.
GORGIAS: Yes, Socrates, I do think myself good at that.
SOCRATES: I am glad to hear it; answer me in like manner about rhetoric: with what is
rhetoric concerned? GORGIAS: With discourse.
SOCRATES: What sort of discourse, Gorgias?—such discourse as would teach the sick under what
treatment they might get well? GORGIAS: No.
SOCRATES: Then rhetoric does not treat of all kinds of discourse?
GORGIAS: Certainly not. SOCRATES: And yet rhetoric makes men able
to speak? GORGIAS: Yes.
SOCRATES: And to understand that about which they speak?
GORGIAS: Of course. SOCRATES: But does not the art of medicine,
which we were just now mentioning, also make men able to understand and speak about the
sick? GORGIAS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: Then medicine also treats of discourse? GORGIAS: Yes.
SOCRATES: Of discourse concerning diseases? GORGIAS: Just so.
SOCRATES: And does not gymnastic also treat of discourse concerning the good or evil condition
of the body? GORGIAS: Very true.
SOCRATES: And the same, Gorgias, is true of the other arts:—all of them treat of discourse
concerning the subjects with which they severally have to do.
GORGIAS: Clearly. SOCRATES: Then why, if you call rhetoric the
art which treats of discourse, and all the other arts treat of discourse, do you not
call them arts of rhetoric? GORGIAS: Because, Socrates, the knowledge
of the other arts has only to do with some sort of external action, as of the hand; but
there is no such action of the hand in rhetoric which works and takes effect only through
the medium of discourse. And therefore I am justified in saying that rhetoric treats of
discourse. SOCRATES: I am not sure whether I entirely
understand you, but I dare say I shall soon know better; please to answer me a question:—you
would allow that there are arts? GORGIAS: Yes.
SOCRATES: As to the arts generally, they are for the most part concerned with doing, and
require little or no speaking; in painting, and statuary, and many other arts, the work
may proceed in silence; and of such arts I suppose you would say that they do not come
within the province of rhetoric. GORGIAS: You perfectly conceive my meaning,
Socrates. SOCRATES: But there are other arts which work
wholly through the medium of language, and require either no action or very little, as,
for example, the arts of arithmetic, of calculation, of geometry, and of playing draughts; in some
of these speech is pretty nearly co-extensive with action, but in most of them the verbal
element is greater—they depend wholly on words for their efficacy and power: and I
take your meaning to be that rhetoric is an art of this latter sort?
GORGIAS: Exactly. SOCRATES: And yet I do not believe that you
really mean to call any of these arts rhetoric; although the precise expression which you
used was, that rhetoric is an art which works and takes effect only through the medium of
discourse; and an adversary who wished to be captious might say, 'And so, Gorgias, you
call arithmetic rhetoric.' But I do not think that you really call arithmetic rhetoric any
more than geometry would be so called by you. GORGIAS: You are quite right, Socrates, in
your apprehension of my meaning. SOCRATES: Well, then, let me now have the
rest of my answer:—seeing that rhetoric is one of those arts which works mainly by
the use of words, and there are other arts which also use words, tell me what is that
quality in words with which rhetoric is concerned:—Suppose that a person asks me about some of the arts
which I was mentioning just now; he might say, 'Socrates, what is arithmetic?' and I
should reply to him, as you replied to me, that arithmetic is one of those arts which
take effect through words. And then he would proceed to ask: 'Words about what?' and I
should reply, Words about odd and even numbers, and how many there are of each. And if he
asked again: 'What is the art of calculation?' I should say, That also is one of the arts
which is concerned wholly with words. And if he further said, 'Concerned with what?'
I should say, like the clerks in the assembly, 'as aforesaid' of arithmetic, but with a difference,
the difference being that the art of calculation considers not only the quantities of odd and
even numbers, but also their numerical relations to themselves and to one another. And suppose,
again, I were to say that astronomy is only words—he would ask, 'Words about what, Socrates?'
and I should answer, that astronomy tells us about the motions of the stars and sun
and moon, and their relative swiftness. GORGIAS: You would be quite right, Socrates.
SOCRATES: And now let us have from you, Gorgias, the truth about rhetoric: which you would
admit (would you not?) to be one of those arts which act always and fulfil all their
ends through the medium of words? GORGIAS: True.
SOCRATES: Words which do what? I should ask. To what class of things do the words which
rhetoric uses relate? GORGIAS: To the greatest, Socrates, and the
best of human things. SOCRATES: That again, Gorgias is ambiguous;
I am still in the dark: for which are the greatest and best of human things? I dare
say that you have heard men singing at feasts the old drinking song, in which the singers
enumerate the goods of life, first health, beauty next, thirdly, as the writer of the
song says, wealth honestly obtained. GORGIAS: Yes, I know the song; but what is
your drift? SOCRATES: I mean to say, that the producers
of those things which the author of the song praises, that is to say, the physician, the
trainer, the money-maker, will at once come to you, and first the physician will say:
'O Socrates, Gorgias is deceiving you, for my art is concerned with the greatest good
of men and not his.' And when I ask, Who are you? he will reply, 'I am a physician.' What
do you mean? I shall say. Do you mean that your art produces the greatest good? 'Certainly,'
he will answer, 'for is not health the greatest good? What greater good can men have, Socrates?'
And after him the trainer will come and say, 'I too, Socrates, shall be greatly surprised
if Gorgias can show more good of his art than I can show of mine.' To him again I shall
say, Who are you, honest friend, and what is your business? 'I am a trainer,' he will
reply, 'and my business is to make men beautiful and strong in body.' When I have done with
the trainer, there arrives the money-maker, and he, as I expect, will utterly despise
them all. 'Consider Socrates,' he will say, 'whether Gorgias or any one else can produce
any greater good than wealth.' Well, you and I say to him, and are you a creator of wealth?
'Yes,' he replies. And who are you? 'A money-maker.' And do you consider wealth to be the greatest
good of man? 'Of course,' will be his reply. And we shall rejoin: Yes; but our friend Gorgias
contends that his art produces a greater good than yours. And then he will be sure to go
on and ask, 'What good? Let Gorgias answer.' Now I want you, Gorgias, to imagine that this
question is asked of you by them and by me; What is that which, as you say, is the greatest
good of man, and of which you are the creator? Answer us.
GORGIAS: That good, Socrates, which is truly the greatest, being that which gives to men
freedom in their own persons, and to individuals the power of ruling over others in their several
states. SOCRATES: And what would you consider this
to be? GORGIAS: What is there greater than the word
which persuades the judges in the courts, or the senators in the council, or the citizens
in the assembly, or at any other political meeting?—if you have the power of uttering
this word, you will have the physician your slave, and the trainer your slave, and the
money-maker of whom you talk will be found to gather treasures, not for himself, but
for you who are able to speak and to persuade the multitude.
SOCRATES: Now I think, Gorgias, that you have very accurately explained what you conceive
to be the art of rhetoric; and you mean to say, if I am not mistaken, that rhetoric is
the artificer of persuasion, having this and no other business, and that this is her crown
and end. Do you know any other effect of rhetoric over and above that of producing persuasion?
GORGIAS: No: the definition seems to me very fair, Socrates; for persuasion is the chief
end of rhetoric. SOCRATES: Then hear me, Gorgias, for I am
quite sure that if there ever was a man who entered on the discussion of a matter from
a pure love of knowing the truth, I am such a one, and I should say the same of you.
GORGIAS: What is coming, Socrates? SOCRATES: I will tell you: I am very well
aware that I do not know what, according to you, is the exact nature, or what are the
topics of that persuasion of which you speak, and which is given by rhetoric; although I
have a suspicion about both the one and the other. And I am going to ask—what is this
power of persuasion which is given by rhetoric, and about what? But why, if I have a suspicion,
do I ask instead of telling you? Not for your sake, but in order that the argument may proceed
in such a manner as is most likely to set forth the truth. And I would have you observe,
that I am right in asking this further question: If I asked, 'What sort of a painter is Zeuxis?'
and you said, 'The painter of figures,' should I not be right in asking, 'What kind of figures,
and where do you find them?' GORGIAS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: And the reason for asking this second question would be, that there are other painters
besides, who paint many other figures? GORGIAS: True.
SOCRATES: But if there had been no one but Zeuxis who painted them, then you would have
answered very well? GORGIAS: Quite so.
SOCRATES: Now I want to know about rhetoric in the same way;—is rhetoric the only art
which brings persuasion, or do other arts have the same effect? I mean to say—Does
he who teaches anything persuade men of that which he teaches or not?
GORGIAS: He persuades, Socrates,—there can be no mistake about that.
SOCRATES: Again, if we take the arts of which we were just now speaking:—do not arithmetic
and the arithmeticians teach us the properties of number?
GORGIAS: Certainly. SOCRATES: And therefore persuade us of them?
GORGIAS: Yes. SOCRATES: Then arithmetic as well as rhetoric
is an artificer of persuasion? GORGIAS: Clearly.
SOCRATES: And if any one asks us what sort of persuasion, and about what,—we shall
answer, persuasion which teaches the quantity of odd and even; and we shall be able to show
that all the other arts of which we were just now speaking are artificers of persuasion,
and of what sort, and about what. GORGIAS: Very true.
SOCRATES: Then rhetoric is not the only artificer of persuasion?
GORGIAS: True. SOCRATES: Seeing, then, that not only rhetoric
works by persuasion, but that other arts do the same, as in the case of the painter, a
question has arisen which is a very fair one: Of what persuasion is rhetoric the artificer,
and about what?—is not that a fair way of putting the question?
GORGIAS: I think so. SOCRATES: Then, if you approve the question,
Gorgias, what is the answer? GORGIAS: I answer, Socrates, that rhetoric
is the art of persuasion in courts of law and other assemblies, as I was just now saying,
and about the just and unjust. SOCRATES: And that, Gorgias, was what I was
suspecting to be your notion; yet I would not have you wonder if by-and-by I am found
repeating a seemingly plain question; for I ask not in order to confute you, but as
I was saying that the argument may proceed consecutively, and that we may not get the
habit of anticipating and suspecting the meaning of one another's words; I would have you develope
your own views in your own way, whatever may be your hypothesis.
GORGIAS: I think that you are quite right, Socrates.
SOCRATES: Then let me raise another question; there is such a thing as 'having learned'?
GORGIAS: Yes. SOCRATES: And there is also 'having believed'?
GORGIAS: Yes. SOCRATES: And is the 'having learned' the
same as 'having believed,' and are learning and belief the same things?
GORGIAS: In my judgment, Socrates, they are not the same.
SOCRATES: And your judgment is right, as you may ascertain in this way:—If a person were
to say to you, 'Is there, Gorgias, a false belief as well as a true?'—you would reply,
if I am not mistaken, that there is. GORGIAS: Yes.
SOCRATES: Well, but is there a false knowledge as well as a true?
GORGIAS: No. SOCRATES: No, indeed; and this again proves
that knowledge and belief differ. GORGIAS: Very true.
SOCRATES: And yet those who have learned as well as those who have believed are persuaded?
GORGIAS: Just so. SOCRATES: Shall we then assume two sorts of
persuasion,—one which is the source of belief without knowledge, as the other is of knowledge?
GORGIAS: By all means. SOCRATES: And which sort of persuasion does
rhetoric create in courts of law and other assemblies about the just and unjust, the
sort of persuasion which gives belief without knowledge, or that which gives knowledge?
GORGIAS: Clearly, Socrates, that which only gives belief.
SOCRATES: Then rhetoric, as would appear, is the artificer of a persuasion which creates
belief about the just and unjust, but gives no instruction about them?
GORGIAS: True. SOCRATES: And the rhetorician does not instruct
the courts of law or other assemblies about things just and unjust, but he creates belief
about them; for no one can be supposed to instruct such a vast multitude about such
high matters in a short time? GORGIAS: Certainly not.
SOCRATES: Come, then, and let us see what we really mean about rhetoric; for I do not
know what my own meaning is as yet. When the assembly meets to elect a physician or a shipwright
or any other craftsman, will the rhetorician be taken into counsel? Surely not. For at
every election he ought to be chosen who is most skilled; and, again, when walls have
to be built or harbours or docks to be constructed, not the rhetorician but the master workman
will advise; or when generals have to be chosen and an order of battle arranged, or a position
taken, then the military will advise and not the rhetoricians: what do you say, Gorgias?
Since you profess to be a rhetorician and a maker of rhetoricians, I cannot do better
than learn the nature of your art from you. And here let me assure you that I have your
interest in view as well as my own. For likely enough some one or other of the young men
present might desire to become your pupil, and in fact I see some, and a good many too,
who have this wish, but they would be too modest to question you. And therefore when
you are interrogated by me, I would have you imagine that you are interrogated by them.
'What is the use of coming to you, Gorgias?' they will say—'about what will you teach
us to advise the state?—about the just and unjust only, or about those other things also
which Socrates has just mentioned?' How will you answer them?
GORGIAS: I like your way of leading us on, Socrates, and I will endeavour to reveal to
you the whole nature of rhetoric. You must have heard, I think, that the docks and the
walls of the Athenians and the plan of the harbour were devised in accordance with the
counsels, partly of Themistocles, and partly of Pericles, and not at the suggestion of
the builders. SOCRATES: Such is the tradition, Gorgias,
about Themistocles; and I myself heard the speech of Pericles when he advised us about
the middle wall. GORGIAS: And you will observe, Socrates, that
when a decision has to be given in such matters the rhetoricians are the advisers; they are
the men who win their point. SOCRATES: I had that in my admiring mind,
Gorgias, when I asked what is the nature of rhetoric, which always appears to me, when
I look at the matter in this way, to be a marvel of greatness.
GORGIAS: A marvel, indeed, Socrates, if you only knew how rhetoric comprehends and holds
under her sway all the inferior arts. Let me offer you a striking example of this. On
several occasions I have been with my brother Herodicus or some other physician to see one
of his patients, who would not allow the physician to give him medicine, or apply the knife or
hot iron to him; and I have persuaded him to do for me what he would not do for the
physician just by the use of rhetoric. And I say that if a rhetorician and a physician
were to go to any city, and had there to argue in the Ecclesia or any other assembly as to
which of them should be elected state-physician, the physician would have no chance; but he
who could speak would be chosen if he wished; and in a contest with a man of any other profession
the rhetorician more than any one would have the power of getting himself chosen, for he
can speak more persuasively to the multitude than any of them, and on any subject. Such
is the nature and power of the art of rhetoric! And yet, Socrates, rhetoric should be used
like any other competitive art, not against everybody,—the rhetorician ought not to
abuse his strength any more than a pugilist or pancratiast or other master of fence;—because
he has powers which are more than a match either for friend or enemy, he ought not therefore
to strike, stab, or slay his friends. Suppose a man to have been trained in the palestra
and to be a skilful boxer,—he in the fulness of his strength goes and strikes his father
or mother or one of his familiars or friends; but that is no reason why the trainers or
fencing-masters should be held in detestation or banished from the city;—surely not. For
they taught their art for a good purpose, to be used against enemies and evil-doers,
in self-defence not in aggression, and others have perverted their instructions, and turned
to a bad use their own strength and skill. But not on this account are the teachers bad,
neither is the art in fault, or bad in itself; I should rather say that those who make a
bad use of the art are to blame. And the same argument holds good of rhetoric; for the rhetorician
can speak against all men and upon any subject,—in short, he can persuade the multitude better
than any other man of anything which he pleases, but he should not therefore seek to defraud
the physician or any other artist of his reputation merely because he has the power; he ought
to use rhetoric fairly, as he would also use his athletic powers. And if after having become
a rhetorician he makes a bad use of his strength and skill, his instructor surely ought not
on that account to be held in detestation or banished. For he was intended by his teacher
to make a good use of his instructions, but he abuses them. And therefore he is the person
who ought to be held in detestation, banished, and put to death, and not his instructor.
SOCRATES: You, Gorgias, like myself, have had great experience of disputations, and
you must have observed, I think, that they do not always terminate in mutual edification,
or in the definition by either party of the subjects which they are discussing; but disagreements
are apt to arise—somebody says that another has not spoken truly or clearly; and then
they get into a passion and begin to quarrel, both parties conceiving that their opponents
are arguing from personal feeling only and jealousy of themselves, not from any interest
in the question at issue. And sometimes they will go on abusing one another until the company
at last are quite vexed at themselves for ever listening to such fellows. Why do I say
this? Why, because I cannot help feeling that you are now saying what is not quite consistent
or accordant with what you were saying at first about rhetoric. And I am afraid to point
this out to you, lest you should think that I have some animosity against you, and that
I speak, not for the sake of discovering the truth, but from jealousy of you. Now if you
are one of my sort, I should like to cross-examine you, but if not I will let you alone. And
what is my sort? you will ask. I am one of those who are very willing to be refuted if
I say anything which is not true, and very willing to refute any one else who says what
is not true, and quite as ready to be refuted as to refute; for I hold that this is the
greater gain of the two, just as the gain is greater of being cured of a very great
evil than of curing another. For I imagine that there is no evil which a man can endure
so great as an erroneous opinion about the matters of which we are speaking; and if you
claim to be one of my sort, let us have the discussion out, but if you would rather have
done, no matter;—let us make an end of it. GORGIAS: I should say, Socrates, that I am
quite the man whom you indicate; but, perhaps, we ought to consider the audience, for, before
you came, I had already given a long exhibition, and if we proceed the argument may run on
to a great length. And therefore I think that we should consider whether we may not be detaining
some part of the company when they are wanting to do something else.
CHAEREPHON: You hear the audience cheering, Gorgias and Socrates, which shows their desire
to listen to you; and for myself, Heaven forbid that I should have any business on hand which
would take me away from a discussion so interesting and so ably maintained.
CALLICLES: By the gods, Chaerephon, although I have been present at many discussions, I
doubt whether I was ever so much delighted before, and therefore if you go on discoursing
all day I shall be the better pleased. SOCRATES: I may truly say, Callicles, that
I am willing, if Gorgias is. GORGIAS: After all this, Socrates, I should
be disgraced if I refused, especially as I have promised to answer all comers; in accordance
with the wishes of the company, then, do you begin, and ask of me any question which you
like. SOCRATES: Let me tell you then, Gorgias, what
surprises me in your words; though I dare say that you may be right, and I may have
misunderstood your meaning. You say that you can make any man, who will learn of you, a
rhetorician? GORGIAS: Yes.
SOCRATES: Do you mean that you will teach him to gain the ears of the multitude on any
subject, and this not by instruction but by persuasion?
GORGIAS: Quite so. SOCRATES: You were saying, in fact, that the
rhetorician will have greater powers of persuasion than the physician even in a matter of health?
GORGIAS: Yes, with the multitude,—that is. SOCRATES: You mean to say, with the ignorant;
for with those who know he cannot be supposed to have greater powers of persuasion.
GORGIAS: Very true. SOCRATES: But if he is to have more power
of persuasion than the physician, he will have greater power than he who knows?
GORGIAS: Certainly. SOCRATES: Although he is not a physician:—is
he? GORGIAS: No.
SOCRATES: And he who is not a physician must, obviously, be ignorant of what the physician
knows. GORGIAS: Clearly.
SOCRATES: Then, when the rhetorician is more persuasive than the physician, the ignorant
is more persuasive with the ignorant than he who has knowledge?—is not that the inference?
GORGIAS: In the case supposed:—yes. SOCRATES: And the same holds of the relation
of rhetoric to all the other arts; the rhetorician need not know the truth about things; he has
only to discover some way of persuading the ignorant that he has more knowledge than those
who know? GORGIAS: Yes, Socrates, and is not this a
great comfort?—not to have learned the other arts, but the art of rhetoric only, and yet
to be in no way inferior to the professors of them?
SOCRATES: Whether the rhetorician is or not inferior on this account is a question which
we will hereafter examine if the enquiry is likely to be of any service to us; but I would
rather begin by asking, whether he is or is not as ignorant of the just and unjust, base
and honourable, good and evil, as he is of medicine and the other arts; I mean to say,
does he really know anything of what is good and evil, base or honourable, just or unjust
in them; or has he only a way with the ignorant of persuading them that he not knowing is
to be esteemed to know more about these things than some one else who knows? Or must the
pupil know these things and come to you knowing them before he can acquire the art of rhetoric?
If he is ignorant, you who are the teacher of rhetoric will not teach him—it is not
your business; but you will make him seem to the multitude to know them, when he does
not know them; and seem to be a good man, when he is not. Or will you be unable to teach
him rhetoric at all, unless he knows the truth of these things first? What is to be said
about all this? By heavens, Gorgias, I wish that you would reveal to me the power of rhetoric,
as you were saying that you would. GORGIAS: Well, Socrates, I suppose that if
the pupil does chance not to know them, he will have to learn of me these things as well.
SOCRATES: Say no more, for there you are right; and so he whom you make a rhetorician must
either know the nature of the just and unjust already, or he must be taught by you.
GORGIAS: Certainly. SOCRATES: Well, and is not he who has learned
carpentering a carpenter? GORGIAS: Yes.
SOCRATES: And he who has learned music a musician? GORGIAS: Yes.
SOCRATES: And he who has learned medicine is a physician, in like manner? He who has
learned anything whatever is that which his knowledge makes him.
GORGIAS: Certainly. SOCRATES: And in the same way, he who has
learned what is just is just? GORGIAS: To be sure.
SOCRATES: And he who is just may be supposed to do what is just?
GORGIAS: Yes. SOCRATES: And must not the just man always
desire to do what is just? GORGIAS: That is clearly the inference.
SOCRATES: Surely, then, the just man will never consent to do injustice?
GORGIAS: Certainly not. SOCRATES: And according to the argument the
rhetorician must be a just man? GORGIAS: Yes.
SOCRATES: And will therefore never be willing to do injustice?
GORGIAS: Clearly not. SOCRATES: But do you remember saying just
now that the trainer is not to be accused or banished if the pugilist makes a wrong
use of his pugilistic art; and in like manner, if the rhetorician makes a bad and unjust
use of his rhetoric, that is not to be laid to the charge of his teacher, who is not to
be banished, but the wrong-doer himself who made a bad use of his rhetoric—he is to
be banished—was not that said? GORGIAS: Yes, it was.
SOCRATES: But now we are affirming that the aforesaid rhetorician will never have done
injustice at all? GORGIAS: True.
SOCRATES: And at the very outset, Gorgias, it was said that rhetoric treated of discourse,
not (like arithmetic) about odd and even, but about just and unjust? Was not this said?
GORGIAS: Yes. SOCRATES: I was thinking at the time, when
I heard you saying so, that rhetoric, which is always discoursing about justice, could
not possibly be an unjust thing. But when you added, shortly afterwards, that the rhetorician
might make a bad use of rhetoric I noted with surprise the inconsistency into which you
had fallen; and I said, that if you thought, as I did, that there was a gain in being refuted,
there would be an advantage in going on with the question, but if not, I would leave off.
And in the course of our investigations, as you will see yourself, the rhetorician has
been acknowledged to be incapable of making an unjust use of rhetoric, or of willingness
to do injustice. By the dog, Gorgias, there will be a great deal of discussion, before
we get at the truth of all this. POLUS: And do even you, Socrates, seriously
believe what you are now saying about rhetoric? What! because Gorgias was ashamed to deny
that the rhetorician knew the just and the honourable and the good, and admitted that
to any one who came to him ignorant of them he could teach them, and then out of this
admission there arose a contradiction—the thing which you dearly love, and to which
not he, but you, brought the argument by your captious questions—(do you seriously believe
that there is any truth in all this?) For will any one ever acknowledge that he does
not know, or cannot teach, the nature of justice? The truth is, that there is great want of
manners in bringing the argument to such a pass.
SOCRATES: Illustrious Polus, the reason why we provide ourselves with friends and children
is, that when we get old and stumble, a younger generation may be at hand to set us on our
legs again in our words and in our actions: and now, if I and Gorgias are stumbling, here
are you who should raise us up; and I for my part engage to retract any error into which
you may think that I have fallen-upon one condition:
POLUS: What condition? SOCRATES: That you contract, Polus, the prolixity
of speech in which you indulged at first. POLUS: What! do you mean that I may not use
as many words as I please? SOCRATES: Only to think, my friend, that having
come on a visit to Athens, which is the most free-spoken state in Hellas, you when you
got there, and you alone, should be deprived of the power of speech—that would be hard
indeed. But then consider my case:—shall not I be very hardly used, if, when you are
making a long oration, and refusing to answer what you are asked, I am compelled to stay
and listen to you, and may not go away? I say rather, if you have a real interest in
the argument, or, to repeat my former expression, have any desire to set it on its legs, take
back any statement which you please; and in your turn ask and answer, like myself and
Gorgias—refute and be refuted: for I suppose that you would claim to know what Gorgias
knows—would you not? POLUS: Yes.
SOCRATES: And you, like him, invite any one to ask you about anything which he pleases,
and you will know how to answer him? POLUS: To be sure.
SOCRATES: And now, which will you do, ask or answer?
POLUS: I will ask; and do you answer me, Socrates, the same question which Gorgias, as you suppose,
is unable to answer: What is rhetoric? SOCRATES: Do you mean what sort of an art?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: To say the truth, Polus, it is not
an art at all, in my opinion. POLUS: Then what, in your opinion, is rhetoric?
SOCRATES: A thing which, as I was lately reading in a book of yours, you say that you have
made an art. POLUS: What thing?
SOCRATES: I should say a sort of experience. POLUS: Does rhetoric seem to you to be an
experience? SOCRATES: That is my view, but you may be
of another mind. POLUS: An experience in what?
SOCRATES: An experience in producing a sort of delight and gratification.
POLUS: And if able to gratify others, must not rhetoric be a fine thing?
SOCRATES: What are you saying, Polus? Why do you ask me whether rhetoric is a fine thing
or not, when I have not as yet told you what rhetoric is?
POLUS: Did I not hear you say that rhetoric was a sort of experience?
SOCRATES: Will you, who are so desirous to gratify others, afford a slight gratification
to me? POLUS: I will.
SOCRATES: Will you ask me, what sort of an art is cookery?
POLUS: What sort of an art is cookery? SOCRATES: Not an art at all, Polus.
POLUS: What then? SOCRATES: I should say an experience.
POLUS: In what? I wish that you would explain to me.
SOCRATES: An experience in producing a sort of delight and gratification, Polus.
POLUS: Then are cookery and rhetoric the same? SOCRATES: No, they are only different parts
of the same profession. POLUS: Of what profession?
SOCRATES: I am afraid that the truth may seem discourteous; and I hesitate to answer, lest
Gorgias should imagine that I am making fun of his own profession. For whether or no this
is that art of rhetoric which Gorgias practises I really cannot tell:—from what he was just
now saying, nothing appeared of what he thought of his art, but the rhetoric which I mean
is a part of a not very creditable whole. GORGIAS: A part of what, Socrates? Say what
you mean, and never mind me. SOCRATES: In my opinion then, Gorgias, the
whole of which rhetoric is a part is not an art at all, but the habit of a bold and ready
wit, which knows how to manage mankind: this habit I sum up under the word 'flattery';
and it appears to me to have many other parts, one of which is cookery, which may seem to
be an art, but, as I maintain, is only an experience or routine and not an art:—another
part is rhetoric, and the art of attiring and sophistry are two others: thus there are
four branches, and four different things answering to them. And Polus may ask, if he likes, for
he has not as yet been informed, what part of flattery is rhetoric: he did not see that
I had not yet answered him when he proceeded to ask a further question: Whether I do not
think rhetoric a fine thing? But I shall not tell him whether rhetoric is a fine thing
or not, until I have first answered, 'What is rhetoric?' For that would not be right,
Polus; but I shall be happy to answer, if you will ask me, What part of flattery is
rhetoric? POLUS: I will ask and do you answer? What
part of flattery is rhetoric? SOCRATES: Will you understand my answer? Rhetoric,
according to my view, is the ghost or counterfeit of a part of politics.
POLUS: And noble or ignoble? SOCRATES: Ignoble, I should say, if I am compelled
to answer, for I call what is bad ignoble: though I doubt whether you understand what
I was saying before. GORGIAS: Indeed, Socrates, I cannot say that
I understand myself. SOCRATES: I do not wonder, Gorgias; for I
have not as yet explained myself, and our friend Polus, colt by name and colt by nature,
is apt to run away. (This is an untranslatable play on the name 'Polus,' which means 'a colt.')
GORGIAS: Never mind him, but explain to me what you mean by saying that rhetoric is the
counterfeit of a part of politics. SOCRATES: I will try, then, to explain my
notion of rhetoric, and if I am mistaken, my friend Polus shall refute me. We may assume
the existence of bodies and of souls? GORGIAS: Of course.
SOCRATES: You would further admit that there is a good condition of either of them?
GORGIAS: Yes. SOCRATES: Which condition may not be really
good, but good only in appearance? I mean to say, that there are many persons who appear
to be in good health, and whom only a physician or trainer will discern at first sight not
to be in good health. GORGIAS: True.
SOCRATES: And this applies not only to the body, but also to the soul: in either there
may be that which gives the appearance of health and not the reality?
GORGIAS: Yes, certainly. SOCRATES: And now I will endeavour to explain
to you more clearly what I mean: The soul and body being two, have two arts corresponding
to them: there is the art of politics attending on the soul; and another art attending on
the body, of which I know no single name, but which may be described as having two divisions,
one of them gymnastic, and the other medicine. And in politics there is a legislative part,
which answers to gymnastic, as justice does to medicine; and the two parts run into one
another, justice having to do with the same subject as legislation, and medicine with
the same subject as gymnastic, but with a difference. Now, seeing that there are these
four arts, two attending on the body and two on the soul for their highest good; flattery
knowing, or rather guessing their natures, has distributed herself into four shams or
simulations of them; she puts on the likeness of some one or other of them, and pretends
to be that which she simulates, and having no regard for men's highest interests, is
ever making pleasure the bait of the unwary, and deceiving them into the belief that she
is of the highest value to them. Cookery simulates the disguise of medicine, and pretends to
know what food is the best for the body; and if the physician and the cook had to enter
into a competition in which children were the judges, or men who had no more sense than
children, as to which of them best understands the goodness or badness of food, the physician
would be starved to death. A flattery I deem this to be and of an ignoble sort, Polus,
for to you I am now addressing myself, because it aims at pleasure without any thought of
the best. An art I do not call it, but only an experience, because it is unable to explain
or to give a reason of the nature of its own applications. And I do not call any irrational
thing an art; but if you dispute my words, I am prepared to argue in defence of them.
Cookery, then, I maintain to be a flattery which takes the form of medicine; and tiring,
in like manner, is a flattery which takes the form of gymnastic, and is knavish, false,
ignoble, illiberal, working deceitfully by the help of lines, and colours, and enamels,
and garments, and making men affect a spurious beauty to the neglect of the true beauty which
is given by gymnastic. I would rather not be tedious, and therefore
I will only say, after the manner of the geometricians (for I think that by this time you will be
able to follow) as tiring: gymnastic:: cookery: medicine;
or rather, as tiring: gymnastic:: sophistry: legislation;
and as cookery: medicine:: rhetoric: justice.
And this, I say, is the natural difference between the rhetorician and the sophist, but
by reason of their near connection, they are apt to be jumbled up together; neither do
they know what to make of themselves, nor do other men know what to make of them. For
if the body presided over itself, and were not under the guidance of the soul, and the
soul did not discern and discriminate between cookery and medicine, but the body was made
the judge of them, and the rule of judgment was the bodily delight which was given by
them, then the word of Anaxagoras, that word with which you, friend Polus, are so well
acquainted, would prevail far and wide: 'Chaos' would come again, and cookery, health, and
medicine would mingle in an indiscriminate mass. And now I have told you my notion of
rhetoric, which is, in relation to the soul, what cookery is to the body. I may have been
inconsistent in making a long speech, when I would not allow you to discourse at length.
But I think that I may be excused, because you did not understand me, and could make
no use of my answer when I spoke shortly, and therefore I had to enter into an explanation.
And if I show an equal inability to make use of yours, I hope that you will speak at equal
length; but if I am able to understand you, let me have the benefit of your brevity, as
is only fair: And now you may do what you please with my answer.
POLUS: What do you mean? do you think that rhetoric is flattery?
SOCRATES: Nay, I said a part of flattery; if at your age, Polus, you cannot remember,
what will you do by-and-by, when you get older? POLUS: And are the good rhetoricians meanly
regarded in states, under the idea that they are flatterers?
SOCRATES: Is that a question or the beginning of a speech?
POLUS: I am asking a question. SOCRATES: Then my answer is, that they are
not regarded at all. POLUS: How not regarded? Have they not very
great power in states? SOCRATES: Not if you mean to say that power
is a good to the possessor. POLUS: And that is what I do mean to say.
SOCRATES: Then, if so, I think that they have the least power of all the citizens.
POLUS: What! are they not like tyrants? They kill and despoil and exile any one whom they
please. SOCRATES: By the dog, Polus, I cannot make
out at each deliverance of yours, whether you are giving an opinion of your own, or
asking a question of me. POLUS: I am asking a question of you.
SOCRATES: Yes, my friend, but you ask two questions at once.
POLUS: How two questions? SOCRATES: Why, did you not say just now that
the rhetoricians are like tyrants, and that they kill and despoil or exile any one whom
they please? POLUS: I did.
SOCRATES: Well then, I say to you that here are two questions in one, and I will answer
both of them. And I tell you, Polus, that rhetoricians and tyrants have the least possible
power in states, as I was just now saying; for they do literally nothing which they will,
but only what they think best. POLUS: And is not that a great power?
SOCRATES: Polus has already said the reverse. POLUS: Said the reverse! nay, that is what
I assert. SOCRATES: No, by the great—what do you call
him?—not you, for you say that power is a good to him who has the power.
POLUS: I do. SOCRATES: And would you maintain that if a
fool does what he thinks best, this is a good, and would you call this great power?
POLUS: I should not. SOCRATES: Then you must prove that the rhetorician
is not a fool, and that rhetoric is an art and not a flattery—and so you will have
refuted me; but if you leave me unrefuted, why, the rhetoricians who do what they think
best in states, and the tyrants, will have nothing upon which to congratulate themselves,
if as you say, power be indeed a good, admitting at the same time that what is done without
sense is an evil. POLUS: Yes; I admit that.
SOCRATES: How then can the rhetoricians or the tyrants have great power in states, unless
Polus can refute Socrates, and prove to him that they do as they will?
POLUS: This fellow— SOCRATES: I say that they do not do as they
will;—now refute me. POLUS: Why, have you not already said that
they do as they think best? SOCRATES: And I say so still.
POLUS: Then surely they do as they will? SOCRATES: I deny it.
POLUS: But they do what they think best? SOCRATES: Aye.
POLUS: That, Socrates, is monstrous and absurd. SOCRATES: Good words, good Polus, as I may
say in your own peculiar style; but if you have any questions to ask of me, either prove
that I am in error or give the answer yourself. POLUS: Very well, I am willing to answer that
I may know what you mean. SOCRATES: Do men appear to you to will that
which they do, or to will that further end for the sake of which they do a thing? when
they take medicine, for example, at the bidding of a physician, do they will the drinking
of the medicine which is painful, or the health for the sake of which they drink?
POLUS: Clearly, the health. SOCRATES: And when men go on a voyage or engage
in business, they do not will that which they are doing at the time; for who would desire
to take the risk of a voyage or the trouble of business?—But they will, to have the
wealth for the sake of which they go on a voyage.
POLUS: Certainly. SOCRATES: And is not this universally true?
If a man does something for the sake of something else, he wills not that which he does, but
that for the sake of which he does it. POLUS: Yes.
SOCRATES: And are not all things either good or evil, or intermediate and indifferent?
POLUS: To be sure, Socrates. SOCRATES: Wisdom and health and wealth and
the like you would call goods, and their opposites evils?
POLUS: I should. SOCRATES: And the things which are neither
good nor evil, and which partake sometimes of the nature of good and at other times of
evil, or of neither, are such as sitting, walking, running, sailing; or, again, wood,
stones, and the like:—these are the things which you call neither good nor evil?
POLUS: Exactly so. SOCRATES: Are these indifferent things done
for the sake of the good, or the good for the sake of the indifferent?
POLUS: Clearly, the indifferent for the sake of the good.
SOCRATES: When we walk we walk for the sake of the good, and under the idea that it is
better to walk, and when we stand we stand equally for the sake of the good?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: And when we kill a man we kill him
or exile him or despoil him of his goods, because, as we think, it will conduce to our
good? POLUS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: Men who do any of these things do them for the sake of the good?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: And did we not admit that in doing
something for the sake of something else, we do not will those things which we do, but
that other thing for the sake of which we do them?
POLUS: Most true. SOCRATES: Then we do not will simply to kill
a man or to exile him or to despoil him of his goods, but we will to do that which conduces
to our good, and if the act is not conducive to our good we do not will it; for we will,
as you say, that which is our good, but that which is neither good nor evil, or simply
evil, we do not will. Why are you silent, Polus? Am I not right?
POLUS: You are right. SOCRATES: Hence we may infer, that if any
one, whether he be a tyrant or a rhetorician, kills another or exiles another or deprives
him of his property, under the idea that the act is for his own interests when really not
for his own interests, he may be said to do what seems best to him?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: But does he do what he wills if
he does what is evil? Why do you not answer? POLUS: Well, I suppose not.
SOCRATES: Then if great power is a good as you allow, will such a one have great power
in a state? POLUS: He will not.
SOCRATES: Then I was right in saying that a man may do what seems good to him in a state,
and not have great power, and not do what he wills?
POLUS: As though you, Socrates, would not like to have the power of doing what seemed
good to you in the state, rather than not; you would not be jealous when you saw any
one killing or despoiling or imprisoning whom he pleased, Oh, no!
SOCRATES: Justly or unjustly, do you mean? POLUS: In either case is he not equally to
be envied? SOCRATES: Forbear, Polus!
POLUS: Why 'forbear'? SOCRATES: Because you ought not to envy wretches
who are not to be envied, but only to pity them.
POLUS: And are those of whom I spoke wretches? SOCRATES: Yes, certainly they are.
POLUS: And so you think that he who slays any one whom he pleases, and justly slays
him, is pitiable and wretched? SOCRATES: No, I do not say that of him: but
neither do I think that he is to be envied. POLUS: Were you not saying just now that he
is wretched? SOCRATES: Yes, my friend, if he killed another
unjustly, in which case he is also to be pitied; and he is not to be envied if he killed him
justly. POLUS: At any rate you will allow that he
who is unjustly put to death is wretched, and to be pitied?
SOCRATES: Not so much, Polus, as he who kills him, and not so much as he who is justly killed.
POLUS: How can that be, Socrates? SOCRATES: That may very well be, inasmuch
as doing injustice is the greatest of evils. POLUS: But is it the greatest? Is not suffering
injustice a greater evil? SOCRATES: Certainly not.
POLUS: Then would you rather suffer than do injustice?
SOCRATES: I should not like either, but if I must choose between them, I would rather
suffer than do. POLUS: Then you would not wish to be a tyrant?
SOCRATES: Not if you mean by tyranny what I mean.
POLUS: I mean, as I said before, the power of doing whatever seems good to you in a state,
killing, banishing, doing in all things as you like.
SOCRATES: Well then, illustrious friend, when I have said my say, do you reply to me. Suppose
that I go into a crowded Agora, and take a dagger under my arm. Polus, I say to you,
I have just acquired rare power, and become a tyrant; for if I think that any of these
men whom you see ought to be put to death, the man whom I have a mind to kill is as good
as dead; and if I am disposed to break his head or tear his garment, he will have his
head broken or his garment torn in an instant. Such is my great power in this city. And if
you do not believe me, and I show you the dagger, you would probably reply: Socrates,
in that sort of way any one may have great power—he may burn any house which he pleases,
and the docks and triremes of the Athenians, and all their other vessels, whether public
or private—but can you believe that this mere doing as you think best is great power?
POLUS: Certainly not such doing as this. SOCRATES: But can you tell me why you disapprove
of such a power? POLUS: I can.
SOCRATES: Why then? POLUS: Why, because he who did as you say
would be certain to be punished. SOCRATES: And punishment is an evil?
POLUS: Certainly. SOCRATES: And you would admit once more, my
good sir, that great power is a benefit to a man if his actions turn out to his advantage,
and that this is the meaning of great power; and if not, then his power is an evil and
is no power. But let us look at the matter in another way:—do we not acknowledge that
the things of which we were speaking, the infliction of death, and exile, and the deprivation
of property are sometimes a good and sometimes not a good?
POLUS: Certainly. SOCRATES: About that you and I may be supposed
to agree? POLUS: Yes.
SOCRATES: Tell me, then, when do you say that they are good and when that they are evil—what
principle do you lay down? POLUS: I would rather, Socrates, that you
should answer as well as ask that question. SOCRATES: Well, Polus, since you would rather
have the answer from me, I say that they are good when they are just, and evil when they
are unjust. POLUS: You are hard of refutation, Socrates,
but might not a child refute that statement? SOCRATES: Then I shall be very grateful to
the child, and equally grateful to you if you will refute me and deliver me from my
foolishness. And I hope that refute me you will, and not weary of doing good to a friend.
POLUS: Yes, Socrates, and I need not go far or appeal to antiquity; events which happened
only a few days ago are enough to refute you, and to prove that many men who do wrong are
happy. SOCRATES: What events?
POLUS: You see, I presume, that Archelaus the son of Perdiccas is now the ruler of Macedonia?
SOCRATES: At any rate I hear that he is. POLUS: And do you think that he is happy or
miserable? SOCRATES: I cannot say, Polus, for I have
never had any acquaintance with him. POLUS: And cannot you tell at once, and without
having an acquaintance with him, whether a man is happy?
SOCRATES: Most certainly not. POLUS: Then clearly, Socrates, you would say
that you did not even know whether the great king was a happy man?
SOCRATES: And I should speak the truth; for I do not know how he stands in the matter
of education and justice. POLUS: What! and does all happiness consist
in this? SOCRATES: Yes, indeed, Polus, that is my doctrine;
the men and women who are gentle and good are also happy, as I maintain, and the unjust
and evil are miserable. POLUS: Then, according to your doctrine, the
said Archelaus is miserable? SOCRATES: Yes, my friend, if he is wicked.
POLUS: That he is wicked I cannot deny; for he had no title at all to the throne which
he now occupies, he being only the son of a woman who was the slave of Alcetas the brother
of Perdiccas; he himself therefore in strict right was the slave of Alcetas; and if he
had meant to do rightly he would have remained his slave, and then, according to your doctrine,
he would have been happy. But now he is unspeakably miserable, for he has been guilty of the greatest
crimes: in the first place he invited his uncle and master, Alcetas, to come to him,
under the pretence that he would restore to him the throne which Perdiccas has usurped,
and after entertaining him and his son Alexander, who was his own cousin, and nearly of an age
with him, and making them drunk, he threw them into a waggon and carried them off by
night, and slew them, and got both of them out of the way; and when he had done all this
wickedness he never discovered that he was the most miserable of all men, and was very
far from repenting: shall I tell you how he showed his remorse? he had a younger brother,
a child of seven years old, who was the legitimate son of Perdiccas, and to him of right the
kingdom belonged; Archelaus, however, had no mind to bring him up as he ought and restore
the kingdom to him; that was not his notion of happiness; but not long afterwards he threw
him into a well and drowned him, and declared to his mother Cleopatra that he had fallen
in while running after a goose, and had been killed. And now as he is the greatest criminal
of all the Macedonians, he may be supposed to be the most miserable and not the happiest
of them, and I dare say that there are many Athenians, and you would be at the head of
them, who would rather be any other Macedonian than Archelaus!
SOCRATES: I praised you at first, Polus, for being a rhetorician rather than a reasoner.
And this, as I suppose, is the sort of argument with which you fancy that a child might refute
me, and by which I stand refuted when I say that the unjust man is not happy. But, my
good friend, where is the refutation? I cannot admit a word which you have been saying.
POLUS: That is because you will not; for you surely must think as I do.
SOCRATES: Not so, my simple friend, but because you will refute me after the manner which
rhetoricians practise in courts of law. For there the one party think that they refute
the other when they bring forward a number of witnesses of good repute in proof of their
allegations, and their adversary has only a single one or none at all. But this kind
of proof is of no value where truth is the aim; a man may often be sworn down by a multitude
of false witnesses who have a great air of respectability. And in this argument nearly
every one, Athenian and stranger alike, would be on your side, if you should bring witnesses
in disproof of my statement;—you may, if you will, summon Nicias the son of Niceratus,
and let his brothers, who gave the row of tripods which stand in the precincts of Dionysus,
come with him; or you may summon Aristocrates, the son of Scellius, who is the giver of that
famous offering which is at Delphi; summon, if you will, the whole house of Pericles,
or any other great Athenian family whom you choose;—they will all agree with you: I
only am left alone and cannot agree, for you do not convince me; although you produce many
false witnesses against me, in the hope of depriving me of my inheritance, which is the
truth. But I consider that nothing worth speaking of will have been effected by me unless I
make you the one witness of my words; nor by you, unless you make me the one witness
of yours; no matter about the rest of the world. For there are two ways of refutation,
one which is yours and that of the world in general; but mine is of another sort—let
us compare them, and see in what they differ. For, indeed, we are at issue about matters
which to know is honourable and not to know disgraceful; to know or not to know happiness
and misery—that is the chief of them. And what knowledge can be nobler? or what ignorance
more disgraceful than this? And therefore I will begin by asking you whether you do
not think that a man who is unjust and doing injustice can be happy, seeing that you think
Archelaus unjust, and yet happy? May I assume this to be your opinion?
POLUS: Certainly. SOCRATES: But I say that this is an impossibility—here
is one point about which we are at issue:—very good. And do you mean to say also that if
he meets with retribution and punishment he will still be happy?
POLUS: Certainly not; in that case he will be most miserable.
SOCRATES: On the other hand, if the unjust be not punished, then, according to you, he
will be happy? POLUS: Yes.
SOCRATES: But in my opinion, Polus, the unjust or doer of unjust actions is miserable in
any case,—more miserable, however, if he be not punished and does not meet with retribution,
and less miserable if he be punished and meets with retribution at the hands of gods and
men. POLUS: You are maintaining a strange doctrine,
Socrates. SOCRATES: I shall try to make you agree with
me, O my friend, for as a friend I regard you. Then these are the points at issue between
us—are they not? I was saying that to do is worse than to suffer injustice?
POLUS: Exactly so. SOCRATES: And you said the opposite?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: I said also that the wicked are
miserable, and you refuted me? POLUS: By Zeus, I did.
SOCRATES: In your own opinion, Polus. POLUS: Yes, and I rather suspect that I was
in the right. SOCRATES: You further said that the wrong-doer
is happy if he be unpunished? POLUS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: And I affirm that he is most miserable, and that those who are punished are less miserable—are
you going to refute this proposition also? POLUS: A proposition which is harder of refutation
than the other, Socrates. SOCRATES: Say rather, Polus, impossible; for
who can refute the truth? POLUS: What do you mean? If a man is detected
in an unjust attempt to make himself a tyrant, and when detected is racked, mutilated, has
his eyes burned out, and after having had all sorts of great injuries inflicted on him,
and having seen his wife and children suffer the like, is at last impaled or tarred and
burned alive, will he be happier than if he escape and become a tyrant, and continue all
through life doing what he likes and holding the reins of government, the envy and admiration
both of citizens and strangers? Is that the paradox which, as you say, cannot be refuted?
SOCRATES: There again, noble Polus, you are raising hobgoblins instead of refuting me;
just now you were calling witnesses against me. But please to refresh my memory a little;
did you say—'in an unjust attempt to make himself a tyrant'?
POLUS: Yes, I did. SOCRATES: Then I say that neither of them
will be happier than the other,—neither he who unjustly acquires a tyranny, nor he
who suffers in the attempt, for of two miserables one cannot be the happier, but that he who
escapes and becomes a tyrant is the more miserable of the two. Do you laugh, Polus? Well, this
is a new kind of refutation,—when any one says anything, instead of refuting him to
laugh at him. POLUS: But do you not think, Socrates, that
you have been sufficiently refuted, when you say that which no human being will allow?
Ask the company. SOCRATES: O Polus, I am not a public man,
and only last year, when my tribe were serving as Prytanes, and it became my duty as their
president to take the votes, there was a laugh at me, because I was unable to take them.
And as I failed then, you must not ask me to count the suffrages of the company now;
but if, as I was saying, you have no better argument than numbers, let me have a turn,
and do you make trial of the sort of proof which, as I think, is required; for I shall
produce one witness only of the truth of my words, and he is the person with whom I am
arguing; his suffrage I know how to take; but with the many I have nothing to do, and
do not even address myself to them. May I ask then whether you will answer in turn and
have your words put to the proof? For I certainly think that I and you and every man do really
believe, that to do is a greater evil than to suffer injustice: and not to be punished
than to be punished. POLUS: And I should say neither I, nor any
man: would you yourself, for example, suffer rather than do injustice?
SOCRATES: Yes, and you, too; I or any man would.
POLUS: Quite the reverse; neither you, nor I, nor any man.
SOCRATES: But will you answer? POLUS: To be sure, I will; for I am curious
to hear what you can have to say. SOCRATES: Tell me, then, and you will know,
and let us suppose that I am beginning at the beginning: which of the two, Polus, in
your opinion, is the worst?—to do injustice or to suffer?
POLUS: I should say that suffering was worst. SOCRATES: And which is the greater disgrace?—Answer.
POLUS: To do. SOCRATES: And the greater disgrace is the
greater evil? POLUS: Certainly not.
SOCRATES: I understand you to say, if I am not mistaken, that the honourable is not the
same as the good, or the disgraceful as the evil?
POLUS: Certainly not. SOCRATES: Let me ask a question of you: When
you speak of beautiful things, such as bodies, colours, figures, sounds, institutions, do
you not call them beautiful in reference to some standard: bodies, for example, are beautiful
in proportion as they are useful, or as the sight of them gives pleasure to the spectators;
can you give any other account of personal beauty?
POLUS: I cannot. SOCRATES: And you would say of figures or
colours generally that they were beautiful, either by reason of the pleasure which they
give, or of their use, or of both? POLUS: Yes, I should.
SOCRATES: And you would call sounds and music beautiful for the same reason?
POLUS: I should. SOCRATES: Laws and institutions also have
no beauty in them except in so far as they are useful or pleasant or both?
POLUS: I think not. SOCRATES: And may not the same be said of
the beauty of knowledge? POLUS: To be sure, Socrates; and I very much
approve of your measuring beauty by the standard of pleasure and utility.
SOCRATES: And deformity or disgrace may be equally measured by the opposite standard
of pain and evil? POLUS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: Then when of two beautiful things one exceeds in beauty, the measure of the
excess is to be taken in one or both of these; that is to say, in pleasure or utility or
both? POLUS: Very true.
SOCRATES: And of two deformed things, that which exceeds in deformity or disgrace, exceeds
either in pain or evil—must it not be so? POLUS: Yes.
SOCRATES: But then again, what was the observation which you just now made, about doing and suffering
wrong? Did you not say, that suffering wrong was more evil, and doing wrong more disgraceful?
POLUS: I did. SOCRATES: Then, if doing wrong is more disgraceful
than suffering, the more disgraceful must be more painful and must exceed in pain or
in evil or both: does not that also follow? POLUS: Of course.
SOCRATES: First, then, let us consider whether the doing of injustice exceeds the suffering
in the consequent pain: Do the injurers suffer more than the injured?
POLUS: No, Socrates; certainly not. SOCRATES: Then they do not exceed in pain?
POLUS: No. SOCRATES: But if not in pain, then not in
both? POLUS: Certainly not.
SOCRATES: Then they can only exceed in the other?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: That is to say, in evil?
POLUS: True. SOCRATES: Then doing injustice will have an
excess of evil, and will therefore be a greater evil than suffering injustice?
POLUS: Clearly. SOCRATES: But have not you and the world already
agreed that to do injustice is more disgraceful than to suffer?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: And that is now discovered to be
more evil? POLUS: True.
SOCRATES: And would you prefer a greater evil or a greater dishonour to a less one? Answer,
Polus, and fear not; for you will come to no harm if you nobly resign yourself into
the healing hand of the argument as to a physician without shrinking, and either say 'Yes' or
'No' to me. POLUS: I should say 'No.'
SOCRATES: Would any other man prefer a greater to a less evil?
POLUS: No, not according to this way of putting the case, Socrates.
SOCRATES: Then I said truly, Polus, that neither you, nor I, nor any man, would rather do than
suffer injustice; for to do injustice is the greater evil of the two.
POLUS: That is the conclusion. SOCRATES: You see, Polus, when you compare
the two kinds of refutations, how unlike they are. All men, with the exception of myself,
are of your way of thinking; but your single assent and witness are enough for me,—I
have no need of any other, I take your suffrage, and am regardless of the rest. Enough of this,
and now let us proceed to the next question; which is, Whether the greatest of evils to
a guilty man is to suffer punishment, as you supposed, or whether to escape punishment
is not a greater evil, as I supposed. Consider:—You would say that to suffer punishment is another
name for being justly corrected when you do wrong?
POLUS: I should. SOCRATES: And would you not allow that all
just things are honourable in so far as they are just? Please to reflect, and tell me your
opinion. POLUS: Yes, Socrates, I think that they are.
SOCRATES: Consider again:—Where there is an agent, must there not also be a patient?
POLUS: I should say so. SOCRATES: And will not the patient suffer
that which the agent does, and will not the suffering have the quality of the action?
I mean, for example, that if a man strikes, there must be something which is stricken?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: And if the striker strikes violently
or quickly, that which is struck will be struck violently or quickly?
POLUS: True. SOCRATES: And the suffering to him who is
stricken is of the same nature as the act of him who strikes?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: And if a man burns, there is something
which is burned? POLUS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: And if he burns in excess or so as to cause pain, the thing burned will be
burned in the same way? POLUS: Truly.
SOCRATES: And if he cuts, the same argument holds—there will be something cut?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: And if the cutting be great or deep
or such as will cause pain, the cut will be of the same nature?
POLUS: That is evident. SOCRATES: Then you would agree generally to
the universal proposition which I was just now asserting: that the affection of the patient
answers to the affection of the agent? POLUS: I agree.
SOCRATES: Then, as this is admitted, let me ask whether being punished is suffering or
acting? POLUS: Suffering, Socrates; there can be no
doubt of that. SOCRATES: And suffering implies an agent?
POLUS: Certainly, Socrates; and he is the punisher.
SOCRATES: And he who punishes rightly, punishes justly?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: And therefore he acts justly?
POLUS: Justly. SOCRATES: Then he who is punished and suffers
retribution, suffers justly? POLUS: That is evident.
SOCRATES: And that which is just has been admitted to be honourable?
POLUS: Certainly. SOCRATES: Then the punisher does what is honourable,
and the punished suffers what is honourable? POLUS: True.
SOCRATES: And if what is honourable, then what is good, for the honourable is either
pleasant or useful? POLUS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: Then he who is punished suffers what is good?
POLUS: That is true. SOCRATES: Then he is benefited?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: Do I understand you to mean what
I mean by the term 'benefited'? I mean, that if he be justly punished his soul is improved.
POLUS: Surely. SOCRATES: Then he who is punished is delivered
from the evil of his soul? POLUS: Yes.
SOCRATES: And is he not then delivered from the greatest evil? Look at the matter in this
way:—In respect of a man's estate, do you see any greater evil than poverty?
POLUS: There is no greater evil. SOCRATES: Again, in a man's bodily frame,
you would say that the evil is weakness and disease and deformity?
POLUS: I should. SOCRATES: And do you not imagine that the
soul likewise has some evil of her own? POLUS: Of course.
SOCRATES: And this you would call injustice and ignorance and cowardice, and the like?
POLUS: Certainly. SOCRATES: So then, in mind, body, and estate,
which are three, you have pointed out three corresponding evils—injustice, disease,
poverty? POLUS: True.
SOCRATES: And which of the evils is the most disgraceful?—Is not the most disgraceful
of them injustice, and in general the evil of the soul?
POLUS: By far the most. SOCRATES: And if the most disgraceful, then
also the worst? POLUS: What do you mean, Socrates?
SOCRATES: I mean to say, that is most disgraceful has been already admitted to be most painful
or hurtful, or both. POLUS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: And now injustice and all evil in the soul has been admitted by us to be most
disgraceful? POLUS: It has been admitted.
SOCRATES: And most disgraceful either because most painful and causing excessive pain, or
most hurtful, or both? POLUS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: And therefore to be unjust and intemperate, and cowardly and ignorant, is more painful
than to be poor and sick? POLUS: Nay, Socrates; the painfulness does
not appear to me to follow from your premises. SOCRATES: Then, if, as you would argue, not
more painful, the evil of the soul is of all evils the most disgraceful; and the excess
of disgrace must be caused by some preternatural greatness, or extraordinary hurtfulness of
the evil. POLUS: Clearly.
SOCRATES: And that which exceeds most in hurtfulness will be the greatest of evils?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: Then injustice and intemperance,
and in general the depravity of the soul, are the greatest of evils?
POLUS: That is evident. SOCRATES: Now, what art is there which delivers
us from poverty? Does not the art of making money?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: And what art frees us from disease?
Does not the art of medicine? POLUS: Very true.
SOCRATES: And what from vice and injustice? If you are not able to answer at once, ask
yourself whither we go with the sick, and to whom we take them.
POLUS: To the physicians, Socrates. SOCRATES: And to whom do we go with the unjust
and intemperate? POLUS: To the judges, you mean.
SOCRATES: —Who are to punish them? POLUS: Yes.
SOCRATES: And do not those who rightly punish others, punish them in accordance with a certain
rule of justice? POLUS: Clearly.
SOCRATES: Then the art of money-making frees a man from poverty; medicine from disease;
and justice from intemperance and injustice? POLUS: That is evident.
SOCRATES: Which, then, is the best of these three?
POLUS: Will you enumerate them? SOCRATES: Money-making, medicine, and justice.
POLUS: Justice, Socrates, far excels the two others.
SOCRATES: And justice, if the best, gives the greatest pleasure or advantage or both?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: But is the being healed a pleasant
thing, and are those who are being healed pleased?
POLUS: I think not. SOCRATES: A useful thing, then?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: Yes, because the patient is delivered
from a great evil; and this is the advantage of enduring the pain—that you get well?
POLUS: Certainly. SOCRATES: And would he be the happier man
in his bodily condition, who is healed, or who never was out of health?
POLUS: Clearly he who was never out of health. SOCRATES: Yes; for happiness surely does not
consist in being delivered from evils, but in never having had them.
POLUS: True. SOCRATES: And suppose the case of two persons
who have some evil in their bodies, and that one of them is healed and delivered from evil,
and another is not healed, but retains the evil—which of them is the most miserable?
POLUS: Clearly he who is not healed. SOCRATES: And was not punishment said by us
to be a deliverance from the greatest of evils, which is vice?
POLUS: True. SOCRATES: And justice punishes us, and makes
us more just, and is the medicine of our vice? POLUS: True.
SOCRATES: He, then, has the first place in the scale of happiness who has never had vice
in his soul; for this has been shown to be the greatest of evils.
POLUS: Clearly. SOCRATES: And he has the second place, who
is delivered from vice? POLUS: True.
SOCRATES: That is to say, he who receives admonition and rebuke and punishment?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: Then he lives worst, who, having
been unjust, has no deliverance from injustice? POLUS: Certainly.
SOCRATES: That is, he lives worst who commits the greatest crimes, and who, being the most
unjust of men, succeeds in escaping rebuke or correction or punishment; and this, as
you say, has been accomplished by Archelaus and other tyrants and rhetoricians and potentates?
(Compare Republic.) POLUS: True.
SOCRATES: May not their way of proceeding, my friend, be compared to the conduct of a
person who is afflicted with the worst of diseases and yet contrives not to pay the
penalty to the physician for his sins against his constitution, and will not be cured, because,
like a child, he is afraid of the pain of being burned or cut:—Is not that a parallel
case? POLUS: Yes, truly.
SOCRATES: He would seem as if he did not know the nature of health and bodily vigour; and
if we are right, Polus, in our previous conclusions, they are in a like case who strive to evade
justice, which they see to be painful, but are blind to the advantage which ensues from
it, not knowing how far more miserable a companion a diseased soul is than a diseased body; a
soul, I say, which is corrupt and unrighteous and unholy. And hence they do all that they
can to avoid punishment and to avoid being released from the greatest of evils; they
provide themselves with money and friends, and cultivate to the utmost their powers of
persuasion. But if we, Polus, are right, do you see what follows, or shall we draw out
the consequences in form? POLUS: If you please.
SOCRATES: Is it not a fact that injustice, and the doing of injustice, is the greatest
of evils? POLUS: That is quite clear.
SOCRATES: And further, that to suffer punishment is the way to be released from this evil?
POLUS: True. SOCRATES: And not to suffer, is to perpetuate
the evil? POLUS: Yes.
SOCRATES: To do wrong, then, is second only in the scale of evils; but to do wrong and
not to be punished, is first and greatest of all?
POLUS: That is true. SOCRATES: Well, and was not this the point
in dispute, my friend? You deemed Archelaus happy, because he was a very great criminal
and unpunished: I, on the other hand, maintained that he or any other who like him has done
wrong and has not been punished, is, and ought to be, the most miserable of all men; and
that the doer of injustice is more miserable than the sufferer; and he who escapes punishment,
more miserable than he who suffers.—Was not that what I said?
POLUS: Yes. SOCRATES: And it has been proved to be true?
POLUS: Certainly. SOCRATES: Well, Polus, but if this is true,
where is the great use of rhetoric? If we admit what has been just now said, every man
ought in every way to guard himself against doing wrong, for he will thereby suffer great
evil? POLUS: True.
SOCRATES: And if he, or any one about whom he cares, does wrong, he ought of his own
accord to go where he will be immediately punished; he will run to the judge, as he
would to the physician, in order that the disease of injustice may not be rendered chronic
and become the incurable cancer of the soul; must we not allow this consequence, Polus,
if our former admissions are to stand:—is any other inference consistent with them?
POLUS: To that, Socrates, there can be but one answer.
SOCRATES: Then rhetoric is of no use to us, Polus, in helping a man to excuse his own
injustice, that of his parents or friends, or children or country; but may be of use
to any one who holds that instead of excusing he ought to accuse—himself above all, and
in the next degree his family or any of his friends who may be doing wrong; he should
bring to light the iniquity and not conceal it, that so the wrong-doer may suffer and
be made whole; and he should even force himself and others not to shrink, but with closed
eyes like brave men to let the physician operate with knife or searing iron, not regarding
the pain, in the hope of attaining the good and the honourable; let him who has done things
worthy of stripes, allow himself to be scourged, if of bonds, to be bound, if of a fine, to
be fined, if of exile, to be exiled, if of death, to die, himself being the first to
accuse himself and his own relations, and using rhetoric to this end, that his and their
unjust actions may be made manifest, and that they themselves may be delivered from injustice,
which is the greatest evil. Then, Polus, rhetoric would indeed be useful. Do you say 'Yes' or
'No' to that? POLUS: To me, Socrates, what you are saying
appears very strange, though probably in agreement with your premises.
SOCRATES: Is not this the conclusion, if the premises are not disproven?
POLUS: Yes; it certainly is. SOCRATES: And from the opposite point of view,
if indeed it be our duty to harm another, whether an enemy or not—I except the case
of self-defence—then I have to be upon my guard—but if my enemy injures a third person,
then in every sort of way, by word as well as deed, I should try to prevent his being
punished, or appearing before the judge; and if he appears, I should contrive that he should
escape, and not suffer punishment: if he has stolen a sum of money, let him keep what he
has stolen and spend it on him and his, regardless of religion and justice; and if he have done
things worthy of death, let him not die, but rather be immortal in his wickedness; or,
if this is not possible, let him at any rate be allowed to live as long as he can. For
such purposes, Polus, rhetoric may be useful, but is of small if of any use to him who is
not intending to commit injustice; at least, there was no such use discovered by us in
the previous discussion. CALLICLES: Tell me, Chaerephon, is Socrates
in earnest, or is he joking? CHAEREPHON: I should say, Callicles, that
he is in most profound earnest; but you may well ask him.
CALLICLES: By the gods, and I will. Tell me, Socrates, are you in earnest, or only in jest?
For if you are in earnest, and what you say is true, is not the whole of human life turned
upside down; and are we not doing, as would appear, in everything the opposite of what
we ought to be doing? SOCRATES: O Callicles, if there were not some
community of feelings among mankind, however varying in different persons—I mean to say,
if every man's feelings were peculiar to himself and were not shared by the rest of his species—I
do not see how we could ever communicate our impressions to one another. I make this remark
because I perceive that you and I have a common feeling. For we are lovers both, and both
of us have two loves apiece:—I am the lover of Alcibiades, the son of Cleinias, and of
philosophy; and you of the Athenian Demus, and of Demus the son of Pyrilampes. Now, I
observe that you, with all your cleverness, do not venture to contradict your favourite
in any word or opinion of his; but as he changes you change, backwards and forwards. When the
Athenian Demus denies anything that you are saying in the assembly, you go over to his
opinion; and you do the same with Demus, the fair young son of Pyrilampes. For you have
not the power to resist the words and ideas of your loves; and if a person were to express
surprise at the strangeness of what you say from time to time when under their influence,
you would probably reply to him, if you were honest, that you cannot help saying what your
loves say unless they are prevented; and that you can only be silent when they are. Now
you must understand that my words are an echo too, and therefore you need not wonder at
me; but if you want to silence me, silence philosophy, who is my love, for she is always
telling me what I am now telling you, my friend; neither is she capricious like my other love,
for the son of Cleinias says one thing to-day and another thing to-morrow, but philosophy
is always true. She is the teacher at whose words you are now wondering, and you have
heard her yourself. Her you must refute, and either show, as I was saying, that to do injustice
and to escape punishment is not the worst of all evils; or, if you leave her word unrefuted,
by the dog the god of Egypt, I declare, O Callicles, that Callicles will never be at
one with himself, but that his whole life will be a discord. And yet, my friend, I would
rather that my lyre should be inharmonious, and that there should be no music in the chorus
which I provided; aye, or that the whole world should be at odds with me, and oppose me,
rather than that I myself should be at odds with myself, and contradict myself.
CALLICLES: O Socrates, you are a regular declaimer, and seem to be running riot in the argument.
And now you are declaiming in this way because Polus has fallen into the same error himself
of which he accused Gorgias:—for he said that when Gorgias was asked by you, whether,
if some one came to him who wanted to learn rhetoric, and did not know justice, he would
teach him justice, Gorgias in his modesty replied that he would, because he thought
that mankind in general would be displeased if he answered 'No'; and then in consequence
of this admission, Gorgias was compelled to contradict himself, that being just the sort
of thing in which you delight. Whereupon Polus laughed at you deservedly, as I think; but
now he has himself fallen into the same trap. I cannot say very much for his wit when he
conceded to you that to do is more dishonourable than to suffer injustice, for this was the
admission which led to his being entangled by you; and because he was too modest to say
what he thought, he had his mouth stopped. For the truth is, Socrates, that you, who
pretend to be engaged in the pursuit of truth, are appealing now to the popular and vulgar
notions of right, which are not natural, but only conventional. Convention and nature are
generally at variance with one another: and hence, if a person is too modest to say what
he thinks, he is compelled to contradict himself; and you, in your ingenuity perceiving the
advantage to be thereby gained, slyly ask of him who is arguing conventionally a question
which is to be determined by the rule of nature; and if he is talking of the rule of nature,
you slip away to custom: as, for instance, you did in this very discussion about doing
and suffering injustice. When Polus was speaking of the conventionally dishonourable, you assailed
him from the point of view of nature; for by the rule of nature, to suffer injustice
is the greater disgrace because the greater evil; but conventionally, to do evil is the
more disgraceful. For the suffering of injustice is not the part of a man, but of a slave,
who indeed had better die than live; since when he is wronged and trampled upon, he is
unable to help himself, or any other about whom he cares. The reason, as I conceive,
is that the makers of laws are the majority who are weak; and they make laws and distribute
praises and censures with a view to themselves and to their own interests; and they terrify
the stronger sort of men, and those who are able to get the better of them, in order that
they may not get the better of them; and they say, that dishonesty is shameful and unjust;
meaning, by the word injustice, the desire of a man to have more than his neighbours;
for knowing their own inferiority, I suspect that they are too glad of equality. And therefore
the endeavour to have more than the many, is conventionally said to be shameful and
unjust, and is called injustice (compare Republic), whereas nature herself intimates that it is
just for the better to have more than the worse, the more powerful than the weaker;
and in many ways she shows, among men as well as among animals, and indeed among whole cities
and races, that justice consists in the superior ruling over and having more than the inferior.
For on what principle of justice did Xerxes invade Hellas, or his father the Scythians?
(not to speak of numberless other examples). Nay, but these are the men who act according
to nature; yes, by Heaven, and according to the law of nature: not, perhaps, according
to that artificial law, which we invent and impose upon our fellows, of whom we take the
best and strongest from their youth upwards, and tame them like young lions,—charming
them with the sound of the voice, and saying to them, that with equality they must be content,
and that the equal is the honourable and the just. But if there were a man who had sufficient
force, he would shake off and break through, and escape from all this; he would trample
under foot all our formulas and spells and charms, and all our laws which are against
nature: the slave would rise in rebellion and be lord over us, and the light of natural
justice would shine forth. And this I take to be the sentiment of Pindar, when he says
in his poem, that 'Law is the king of all, of mortals as well
as of immortals;' this, as he says,
'Makes might to be right, doing violence with highest hand; as I infer from the deeds of
Heracles, for without buying them—' (Fragm. Incert. 151 (Bockh).) —I do not remember
the exact words, but the meaning is, that without buying them, and without their being
given to him, he carried off the oxen of Geryon, according to the law of natural right, and
that the oxen and other possessions of the weaker and inferior properly belong to the
stronger and superior. And this is true, as you may ascertain, if you will leave philosophy
and go on to higher things: for philosophy, Socrates, if pursued in moderation and at
the proper age, is an elegant accomplishment, but too much philosophy is the ruin of human
life. Even if a man has good parts, still, if he carries philosophy into later life,
he is necessarily ignorant of all those things which a gentleman and a person of honour ought
to know; he is inexperienced in the laws of the State, and in the language which ought
to be used in the dealings of man with man, whether private or public, and utterly ignorant
of the pleasures and desires of mankind and of human character in general. And people
of this sort, when they betake themselves to politics or business, are as ridiculous
as I imagine the politicians to be, when they make their appearance in the arena of philosophy.
For, as Euripides says, 'Every man shines in that and pursues that,
and devotes the greatest portion of the day to that in which he most excels,' (Antiope,
fragm. 20 (Dindorf).) but anything in which he is inferior, he avoids
and depreciates, and praises the opposite from partiality to himself, and because he
thinks that he will thus praise himself. The true principle is to unite them. Philosophy,
as a part of education, is an excellent thing, and there is no disgrace to a man while he
is young in pursuing such a study; but when he is more advanced in years, the thing becomes
ridiculous, and I feel towards philosophers as I do towards those who lisp and imitate
children. For I love to see a little child, who is not of an age to speak plainly, lisping
at his play; there is an appearance of grace and freedom in his utterance, which is natural
to his childish years. But when I hear some small creature carefully articulating its
words, I am offended; the sound is disagreeable, and has to my ears the twang of slavery. So
when I hear a man lisping, or see him playing like a child, his behaviour appears to me
ridiculous and unmanly and worthy of stripes. And I have the same feeling about students
of philosophy; when I see a youth thus engaged,—the study appears to me to be in character, and
becoming a man of liberal education, and him who neglects philosophy I regard as an inferior
man, who will never aspire to anything great or noble. But if I see him continuing the
study in later life, and not leaving off, I should like to beat him, Socrates; for,
as I was saying, such a one, even though he have good natural parts, becomes effeminate.
He flies from the busy centre and the market-place, in which, as the poet says, men become distinguished;
he creeps into a corner for the rest of his life, and talks in a whisper with three or
four admiring youths, but never speaks out like a freeman in a satisfactory manner. Now
I, Socrates, am very well inclined towards you, and my feeling may be compared with that
of Zethus towards Amphion, in the play of Euripides, whom I was mentioning just now:
for I am disposed to say to you much what Zethus said to his brother, that you, Socrates,
are careless about the things of which you ought to be careful; and that you
'Who have a soul so noble, are remarkable for a puerile exterior; Neither in a court
of justice could you state a case, or give any reason or proof, Or offer valiant counsel
on another's behalf.' And you must not be offended, my dear Socrates,
for I am speaking out of good-will towards you, if I ask whether you are not ashamed
of being thus defenceless; which I affirm to be the condition not of you only but of
all those who will carry the study of philosophy too far. For suppose that some one were to
take you, or any one of your sort, off to prison, declaring that you had done wrong
when you had done no wrong, you must allow that you would not know what to do:—there
you would stand giddy and gaping, and not having a word to say; and when you went up
before the Court, even if the accuser were a poor creature and not good for much, you
would die if he were disposed to claim the penalty of death. And yet, Socrates, what
is the value of
'An art which converts a man of sense into a fool,'
who is helpless, and has no power to save either himself or others, when he is in the
greatest danger and is going to be despoiled by his enemies of all his goods, and has to
live, simply deprived of his rights of citizenship?—he being a man who, if I may use the expression,
may be boxed on the ears with impunity. Then, my good friend, take my advice, and refute
no more: 'Learn the philosophy of business, and acquire
the reputation of wisdom. But leave to others these niceties,'
whether they are to be described as follies or absurdities:
'For they will only Give you poverty for the inmate of your dwelling.'
Cease, then, emulating these paltry splitters of words, and emulate only the man of substance
and honour, who is well to do. SOCRATES: If my soul, Callicles, were made
of gold, should I not rejoice to discover one of those stones with which they test gold,
and the very best possible one to which I might bring my soul; and if the stone and
I agreed in approving of her training, then I should know that I was in a satisfactory
state, and that no other test was needed by me.
CALLICLES: What is your meaning, Socrates? SOCRATES: I will tell you; I think that I
have found in you the desired touchstone. CALLICLES: Why?
SOCRATES: Because I am sure that if you agree with me in any of the opinions which my soul
forms, I have at last found the truth indeed. For I consider that if a man is to make a
complete trial of the good or evil of the soul, he ought to have three qualities—knowledge,
good-will, outspokenness, which are all possessed by you. Many whom I meet are unable to make
trial of me, because they are not wise as you are; others are wise, but they will not
tell me the truth, because they have not the same interest in me which you have; and these
two strangers, Gorgias and Polus, are undoubtedly wise men and my very good friends, but they
are not outspoken enough, and they are too modest. Why, their modesty is so great that
they are driven to contradict themselves, first one and then the other of them, in the
face of a large company, on matters of the highest moment. But you have all the qualities
in which these others are deficient, having received an excellent education; to this many
Athenians can testify. And you are my friend. Shall I tell you why I think so? I know that
you, Callicles, and Tisander of Aphidnae, and Andron the son of Androtion, and Nausicydes
of the deme of Cholarges, studied together: there were four of you, and I once heard you
advising with one another as to the extent to which the pursuit of philosophy should
be carried, and, as I know, you came to the conclusion that the study should not be pushed
too much into detail. You were cautioning one another not to be overwise; you were afraid
that too much wisdom might unconsciously to yourselves be the ruin of you. And now when
I hear you giving the same advice to me which you then gave to your most intimate friends,
I have a sufficient evidence of your real good-will to me. And of the frankness of your
nature and freedom from modesty I am assured by yourself, and the assurance is confirmed
by your last speech. Well then, the inference in the present case clearly is, that if you
agree with me in an argument about any point, that point will have been sufficiently tested
by us, and will not require to be submitted to any further test. For you could not have
agreed with me, either from lack of knowledge or from superfluity of modesty, nor yet from
a desire to deceive me, for you are my friend, as you tell me yourself. And therefore when
you and I are agreed, the result will be the attainment of perfect truth. Now there is
no nobler enquiry, Callicles, than that which you censure me for making,—What ought the
character of a man to be, and what his pursuits, and how far is he to go, both in maturer years
and in youth? For be assured that if I err in my own conduct I do not err intentionally,
but from ignorance. Do not then desist from advising me, now that you have begun, until
I have learned clearly what this is which I am to practise, and how I may acquire it.
And if you find me assenting to your words, and hereafter not doing that to which I assented,
call me 'dolt,' and deem me unworthy of receiving further instruction. Once more, then, tell
me what you and Pindar mean by natural justice: Do you not mean that the superior should take
the property of the inferior by force; that the better should rule the worse, the noble
have more than the mean? Am I not right in my recollection?
CALLICLES: Yes; that is what I was saying, and so I still aver.
SOCRATES: And do you mean by the better the same as the superior? for I could not make
out what you were saying at the time—whether you meant by the superior the stronger, and
that the weaker must obey the stronger, as you seemed to imply when you said that great
cities attack small ones in accordance with natural right, because they are superior and
stronger, as though the superior and stronger and better were the same; or whether the better
may be also the inferior and weaker, and the superior the worse, or whether better is to
be defined in the same way as superior:—this is the point which I want to have cleared
up. Are the superior and better and stronger the same or different?
CALLICLES: I say unequivocally that they are the same.
SOCRATES: Then the many are by nature superior to the one, against whom, as you were saying,
they make the laws? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: Then the laws of the many are the laws of the superior?
CALLICLES: Very true. SOCRATES: Then they are the laws of the better;
for the superior class are far better, as you were saying?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And since they are superior, the
laws which are made by them are by nature good?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And are not the many of opinion,
as you were lately saying, that justice is equality, and that to do is more disgraceful
than to suffer injustice?—is that so or not? Answer, Callicles, and let no modesty
be found to come in the way; do the many think, or do they not think thus?—I must beg of
you to answer, in order that if you agree with me I may fortify myself by the assent
of so competent an authority. CALLICLES: Yes; the opinion of the many is
what you say. SOCRATES: Then not only custom but nature
also affirms that to do is more disgraceful than to suffer injustice, and that justice
is equality; so that you seem to have been wrong in your former assertion, when accusing
me you said that nature and custom are opposed, and that I, knowing this, was dishonestly
playing between them, appealing to custom when the argument is about nature, and to
nature when the argument is about custom? CALLICLES: This man will never cease talking
nonsense. At your age, Socrates, are you not ashamed to be catching at words and chuckling
over some verbal slip? do you not see—have I not told you already, that by superior I
mean better: do you imagine me to say, that if a rabble of slaves and nondescripts, who
are of no use except perhaps for their physical strength, get together, their ipsissima verba
are laws? SOCRATES: Ho! my philosopher, is that your
line? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: I was thinking, Callicles, that something of the kind must have been in your
mind, and that is why I repeated the question,—What is the superior? I wanted to know clearly
what you meant; for you surely do not think that two men are better than one, or that
your slaves are better than you because they are stronger? Then please to begin again,
and tell me who the better are, if they are not the stronger; and I will ask you, great
Sir, to be a little milder in your instructions, or I shall have to run away from you.
CALLICLES: You are ironical. SOCRATES: No, by the hero Zethus, Callicles,
by whose aid you were just now saying many ironical things against me, I am not:—tell
me, then, whom you mean, by the better? CALLICLES: I mean the more excellent.
SOCRATES: Do you not see that you are yourself using words which have no meaning and that
you are explaining nothing?—will you tell me whether you mean by the better and superior
the wiser, or if not, whom? CALLICLES: Most assuredly, I do mean the wiser.
SOCRATES: Then according to you, one wise man may often be superior to ten thousand
fools, and he ought to rule them, and they ought to be his subjects, and he ought to
have more than they should. This is what I believe that you mean (and you must not suppose
that I am word-catching), if you allow that the one is superior to the ten thousand?
CALLICLES: Yes; that is what I mean, and that is what I conceive to be natural justice—that
the better and wiser should rule and have more than the inferior.
SOCRATES: Stop there, and let me ask you what you would say in this case: Let us suppose
that we are all together as we are now; there are several of us, and we have a large common
store of meats and drinks, and there are all sorts of persons in our company having various
degrees of strength and weakness, and one of us, being a physician, is wiser in the
matter of food than all the rest, and he is probably stronger than some and not so strong
as others of us—will he not, being wiser, be also better than we are, and our superior
in this matter of food? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: Either, then, he will have a larger share of the meats and drinks, because he
is better, or he will have the distribution of all of them by reason of his authority,
but he will not expend or make use of a larger share of them on his own person, or if he
does, he will be punished;—his share will exceed that of some, and be less than that
of others, and if he be the weakest of all, he being the best of all will have the smallest
share of all, Callicles:—am I not right, my friend?
CALLICLES: You talk about meats and drinks and physicians and other nonsense; I am not
speaking of them. SOCRATES: Well, but do you admit that the
wiser is the better? Answer 'Yes' or 'No.' CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And ought not the better to have a larger share?
CALLICLES: Not of meats and drinks. SOCRATES: I understand: then, perhaps, of
coats—the skilfullest weaver ought to have the largest coat, and the greatest number
of them, and go about clothed in the best and finest of them?
CALLICLES: Fudge about coats! SOCRATES: Then the skilfullest and best in
making shoes ought to have the advantage in shoes; the shoemaker, clearly, should walk
about in the largest shoes, and have the greatest number of them?
CALLICLES: Fudge about shoes! What nonsense are you talking?
SOCRATES: Or, if this is not your meaning, perhaps you would say that the wise and good
and true husbandman should actually have a larger share of seeds, and have as much seed
as possible for his own land? CALLICLES: How you go on, always talking in
the same way, Socrates! SOCRATES: Yes, Callicles, and also about the
same things. CALLICLES: Yes, by the Gods, you are literally
always talking of cobblers and fullers and cooks and doctors, as if this had to do with
our argument. SOCRATES: But why will you not tell me in
what a man must be superior and wiser in order to claim a larger share; will you neither
accept a suggestion, nor offer one? CALLICLES: I have already told you. In the
first place, I mean by superiors not cobblers or cooks, but wise politicians who understand
the administration of a state, and who are not only wise, but also valiant and able to
carry out their designs, and not the men to faint from want of soul.
SOCRATES: See now, most excellent Callicles, how different my charge against you is from
that which you bring against me, for you reproach me with always saying the same; but I reproach
you with never saying the same about the same things, for at one time you were defining
the better and the superior to be the stronger, then again as the wiser, and now you bring
forward a new notion; the superior and the better are now declared by you to be the more
courageous: I wish, my good friend, that you would tell me, once for all, whom you affirm
to be the better and superior, and in what they are better?
CALLICLES: I have already told you that I mean those who are wise and courageous in
the administration of a state—they ought to be the rulers of their states, and justice
consists in their having more than their subjects. SOCRATES: But whether rulers or subjects will
they or will they not have more than themselves, my friend?
CALLICLES: What do you mean? SOCRATES: I mean that every man is his own
ruler; but perhaps you think that there is no necessity for him to rule himself; he is
only required to rule others? CALLICLES: What do you mean by his 'ruling
over himself'? SOCRATES: A simple thing enough; just what
is commonly said, that a man should be temperate and master of himself, and ruler of his own
pleasures and passions. CALLICLES: What innocence! you mean those
fools,—the temperate? SOCRATES: Certainly:—any one may know that
to be my meaning. CALLICLES: Quite so, Socrates; and they are
really fools, for how can a man be happy who is the servant of anything? On the contrary,
I plainly assert, that he who would truly live ought to allow his desires to wax to
the uttermost, and not to chastise them; but when they have grown to their greatest he
should have courage and intelligence to minister to them and to satisfy all his longings. And
this I affirm to be natural justice and nobility. To this however the many cannot attain; and
they blame the strong man because they are ashamed of their own weakness, which they
desire to conceal, and hence they say that intemperance is base. As I have remarked already,
they enslave the nobler natures, and being unable to satisfy their pleasures, they praise
temperance and justice out of their own cowardice. For if a man had been originally the son of
a king, or had a nature capable of acquiring an empire or a tyranny or sovereignty, what
could be more truly base or evil than temperance—to a man like him, I say, who might freely be
enjoying every good, and has no one to stand in his way, and yet has admitted custom and
reason and the opinion of other men to be lords over him?—must not he be in a miserable
plight whom the reputation of justice and temperance hinders from giving more to his
friends than to his enemies, even though he be a ruler in his city? Nay, Socrates, for
you profess to be a votary of the truth, and the truth is this:—that luxury and intemperance
and licence, if they be provided with means, are virtue and happiness—all the rest is
a mere bauble, agreements contrary to nature, foolish talk of men, nothing worth. (Compare
Republic.) SOCRATES: There is a noble freedom, Callicles,
in your way of approaching the argument; for what you say is what the rest of the world
think, but do not like to say. And I must beg of you to persevere, that the true rule
of human life may become manifest. Tell me, then:—you say, do you not, that in the rightly-developed
man the passions ought not to be controlled, but that we should let them grow to the utmost
and somehow or other satisfy them, and that this is virtue?
CALLICLES: Yes; I do. SOCRATES: Then those who want nothing are
not truly said to be happy? CALLICLES: No indeed, for then stones and
dead men would be the happiest of all. SOCRATES: But surely life according to your
view is an awful thing; and indeed I think that Euripides may have been right in saying,
'Who knows if life be not death and death life;'
and that we are very likely dead; I have heard a philosopher say that at this moment we are
actually dead, and that the body (soma) is our tomb (sema (compare Phaedr.)), and that
the part of the soul which is the seat of the desires is liable to be tossed about by
words and blown up and down; and some ingenious person, probably a Sicilian or an Italian,
playing with the word, invented a tale in which he called the soul—because of its
believing and make-believe nature—a vessel (An untranslatable pun,—dia to pithanon
te kai pistikon onomase pithon.), and the ignorant he called the uninitiated or leaky,
and the place in the souls of the uninitiated in which the desires are seated, being the
intemperate and incontinent part, he compared to a vessel full of holes, because it can
never be satisfied. He is not of your way of thinking, Callicles, for he declares, that
of all the souls in Hades, meaning the invisible world (aeides), these uninitiated or leaky
persons are the most miserable, and that they pour water into a vessel which is full of
holes out of a colander which is similarly perforated. The colander, as my informer assures
me, is the soul, and the soul which he compares to a colander is the soul of the ignorant,
which is likewise full of holes, and therefore incontinent, owing to a bad memory and want
of faith. These notions are strange enough, but they show the principle which, if I can,
I would fain prove to you; that you should change your mind, and, instead of the intemperate
and insatiate life, choose that which is orderly and sufficient and has a due provision for
daily needs. Do I make any impression on you, and are you coming over to the opinion that
the orderly are happier than the intemperate? Or do I fail to persuade you, and, however
many tales I rehearse to you, do you continue of the same opinion still?
CALLICLES: The latter, Socrates, is more like the truth.
SOCRATES: Well, I will tell you another image, which comes out of the same school:—Let
me request you to consider how far you would accept this as an account of the two lives
of the temperate and intemperate in a figure:—There are two men, both of whom have a number of
casks; the one man has his casks sound and full, one of wine, another of honey, and a
third of milk, besides others filled with other liquids, and the streams which fill
them are few and scanty, and he can only obtain them with a great deal of toil and difficulty;
but when his casks are once filled he has no need to feed them any more, and has no
further trouble with them or care about them. The other, in like manner, can procure streams,
though not without difficulty; but his vessels are leaky and unsound, and night and day he
is compelled to be filling them, and if he pauses for a moment, he is in an agony of
pain. Such are their respective lives:—And now would you say that the life of the intemperate
is happier than that of the temperate? Do I not convince you that the opposite is the
truth? CALLICLES: You do not convince me, Socrates,
for the one who has filled himself has no longer any pleasure left; and this, as I was
just now saying, is the life of a stone: he has neither joy nor sorrow after he is once
filled; but the pleasure depends on the superabundance of the influx.
SOCRATES: But the more you pour in, the greater the waste; and the holes must be large for
the liquid to escape. CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: The life which you are now depicting is not that of a dead man, or of a stone,
but of a cormorant; you mean that he is to be hungering and eating?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And he is to be thirsting and drinking?
CALLICLES: Yes, that is what I mean; he is to have all his desires about him, and to
be able to live happily in the gratification of them.
SOCRATES: Capital, excellent; go on as you have begun, and have no shame; I, too, must
disencumber myself of shame: and first, will you tell me whether you include itching and
scratching, provided you have enough of them and pass your life in scratching, in your
notion of happiness? CALLICLES: What a strange being you are, Socrates!
a regular mob-orator. SOCRATES: That was the reason, Callicles,
why I scared Polus and Gorgias, until they were too modest to say what they thought;
but you will not be too modest and will not be scared, for you are a brave man. And now,
answer my question. CALLICLES: I answer, that even the scratcher
would live pleasantly. SOCRATES: And if pleasantly, then also happily?
CALLICLES: To be sure. SOCRATES: But what if the itching is not confined
to the head? Shall I pursue the question? And here, Callicles, I would have you consider
how you would reply if consequences are pressed upon you, especially if in the last resort
you are asked, whether the life of a catamite is not terrible, foul, miserable? Or would
you venture to say, that they too are happy, if they only get enough of what they want?
CALLICLES: Are you not ashamed, Socrates, of introducing such topics into the argument?
SOCRATES: Well, my fine friend, but am I the introducer of these topics, or he who says
without any qualification that all who feel pleasure in whatever manner are happy, and
who admits of no distinction between good and bad pleasures? And I would still ask,
whether you say that pleasure and good are the same, or whether there is some pleasure
which is not a good? CALLICLES: Well, then, for the sake of consistency,
I will say that they are the same. SOCRATES: You are breaking the original agreement,
Callicles, and will no longer be a satisfactory companion in the search after truth, if you
say what is contrary to your real opinion. CALLICLES: Why, that is what you are doing
too, Socrates. SOCRATES: Then we are both doing wrong. Still,
my dear friend, I would ask you to consider whether pleasure, from whatever source derived,
is the good; for, if this be true, then the disagreeable consequences which have been
darkly intimated must follow, and many others. CALLICLES: That, Socrates, is only your opinion.
SOCRATES: And do you, Callicles, seriously maintain what you are saying?
CALLICLES: Indeed I do. SOCRATES: Then, as you are in earnest, shall
we proceed with the argument? CALLICLES: By all means. (Footnote: Or, 'I
am in profound earnest.' End of Footnote) SOCRATES: Well, if you are willing to proceed,
determine this question for me:—There is something, I presume, which you would call
knowledge? CALLICLES: There is.
SOCRATES: And were you not saying just now, that some courage implied knowledge?
CALLICLES: I was. SOCRATES: And you were speaking of courage
and knowledge as two things different from one another?
CALLICLES: Certainly I was. SOCRATES: And would you say that pleasure
and knowledge are the same, or not the same? CALLICLES: Not the same, O man of wisdom.
SOCRATES: And would you say that courage differed from pleasure?
CALLICLES: Certainly. SOCRATES: Well, then, let us remember that
Callicles, the Acharnian, says that pleasure and good are the same; but that knowledge
and courage are not the same, either with one another, or with the good.
CALLICLES: And what does our friend Socrates, of Foxton, say—does he assent to this, or
not? SOCRATES: He does not assent; neither will
Callicles, when he sees himself truly. You will admit, I suppose, that good and evil
fortune are opposed to each other? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And if they are opposed to each other, then, like health and disease, they
exclude one another; a man cannot have them both, or be without them both, at the same
time? CALLICLES: What do you mean?
SOCRATES: Take the case of any bodily affection:—a man may have the complaint in his eyes which
is called ophthalmia? CALLICLES: To be sure.
SOCRATES: But he surely cannot have the same eyes well and sound at the same time?
CALLICLES: Certainly not. SOCRATES: And when he has got rid of his ophthalmia,
has he got rid of the health of his eyes too? Is the final result, that he gets rid of them
both together? CALLICLES: Certainly not.
SOCRATES: That would surely be marvellous and absurd?
CALLICLES: Very. SOCRATES: I suppose that he is affected by
them, and gets rid of them in turns? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And he may have strength and weakness in the same way, by fits?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: Or swiftness and slowness?
CALLICLES: Certainly. SOCRATES: And does he have and not have good
and happiness, and their opposites, evil and misery, in a similar alternation? (Compare
Republic.) CALLICLES: Certainly he has.
SOCRATES: If then there be anything which a man has and has not at the same time, clearly
that cannot be good and evil—do we agree? Please not to answer without consideration.
CALLICLES: I entirely agree. SOCRATES: Go back now to our former admissions.—Did
you say that to hunger, I mean the mere state of hunger, was pleasant or painful?
CALLICLES: I said painful, but that to eat when you are hungry is pleasant.
SOCRATES: I know; but still the actual hunger is painful: am I not right?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And thirst, too, is painful?
CALLICLES: Yes, very. SOCRATES: Need I adduce any more instances,
or would you agree that all wants or desires are painful?
CALLICLES: I agree, and therefore you need not adduce any more instances.
SOCRATES: Very good. And you would admit that to drink, when you are thirsty, is pleasant?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And in the sentence which you have
just uttered, the word 'thirsty' implies pain? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And the word 'drinking' is expressive of pleasure, and of the satisfaction of the
want? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: There is pleasure in drinking? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: When you are thirsty? SOCRATES: And in pain?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: Do you see the inference:—that
pleasure and pain are simultaneous, when you say that being thirsty, you drink? For are
they not simultaneous, and do they not affect at the same time the same part, whether of
the soul or the body?—which of them is affected cannot be supposed to be of any consequence:
Is not this true? CALLICLES: It is.
SOCRATES: You said also, that no man could have good and evil fortune at the same time?
CALLICLES: Yes, I did. SOCRATES: But you admitted, that when in pain
a man might also have pleasure? CALLICLES: Clearly.
SOCRATES: Then pleasure is not the same as good fortune, or pain the same as evil fortune,
and therefore the good is not the same as the pleasant?
CALLICLES: I wish I knew, Socrates, what your quibbling means.
SOCRATES: You know, Callicles, but you affect not to know.
CALLICLES: Well, get on, and don't keep fooling: then you will know what a wiseacre you are
in your admonition of me. SOCRATES: Does not a man cease from his thirst
and from his pleasure in drinking at the same time?
CALLICLES: I do not understand what you are saying.
GORGIAS: Nay, Callicles, answer, if only for our sakes;—we should like to hear the argument
out. CALLICLES: Yes, Gorgias, but I must complain
of the habitual trifling of Socrates; he is always arguing about little and unworthy questions.
GORGIAS: What matter? Your reputation, Callicles, is not at stake. Let Socrates argue in his
own fashion. CALLICLES: Well, then, Socrates, you shall
ask these little peddling questions, since Gorgias wishes to have them.
SOCRATES: I envy you, Callicles, for having been initiated into the great mysteries before
you were initiated into the lesser. I thought that this was not allowable. But to return
to our argument:—Does not a man cease from thirsting and from the pleasure of drinking
at the same moment? CALLICLES: True.
SOCRATES: And if he is hungry, or has any other desire, does he not cease from the desire
and the pleasure at the same moment? CALLICLES: Very true.
SOCRATES: Then he ceases from pain and pleasure at the same moment?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: But he does not cease from good
and evil at the same moment, as you have admitted: do you still adhere to what you said?
CALLICLES: Yes, I do; but what is the inference? SOCRATES: Why, my friend, the inference is
that the good is not the same as the pleasant, or the evil the same as the painful; there
is a cessation of pleasure and pain at the same moment; but not of good and evil, for
they are different. How then can pleasure be the same as good, or pain as evil? And
I would have you look at the matter in another light, which could hardly, I think, have been
considered by you when you identified them: Are not the good good because they have good
present with them, as the beautiful are those who have beauty present with them?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And do you call the fools and cowards
good men? For you were saying just now that the courageous and the wise are the good—would
you not say so? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: And did you never see a foolish child rejoicing?
CALLICLES: Yes, I have. SOCRATES: And a foolish man too?
CALLICLES: Yes, certainly; but what is your drift?
SOCRATES: Nothing particular, if you will only answer.
CALLICLES: Yes, I have. SOCRATES: And did you ever see a sensible
man rejoicing or sorrowing? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: Which rejoice and sorrow most—the wise or the foolish?
CALLICLES: They are much upon a par, I think, in that respect.
SOCRATES: Enough: And did you ever see a coward in battle?
CALLICLES: To be sure. SOCRATES: And which rejoiced most at the departure
of the enemy, the coward or the brave? CALLICLES: I should say 'most' of both; or
at any rate, they rejoiced about equally. SOCRATES: No matter; then the cowards, and
not only the brave, rejoice? CALLICLES: Greatly.
SOCRATES: And the foolish; so it would seem? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And are only the cowards pained at the approach of their enemies, or are the
brave also pained? CALLICLES: Both are pained.
SOCRATES: And are they equally pained? CALLICLES: I should imagine that the cowards
are more pained. SOCRATES: And are they not better pleased
at the enemy's departure? CALLICLES: I dare say.
SOCRATES: Then are the foolish and the wise and the cowards and the brave all pleased
and pained, as you were saying, in nearly equal degree; but are the cowards more pleased
and pained than the brave? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: But surely the wise and brave are the good, and the foolish and the cowardly
are the bad? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: Then the good and the bad are pleased and pained in a nearly equal degree?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: Then are the good and bad good and
bad in a nearly equal degree, or have the bad the advantage both in good and evil? (i.e.
in having more pleasure and more pain.) CALLICLES: I really do not know what you mean.
SOCRATES: Why, do you not remember saying that the good were good because good was present
with them, and the evil because evil; and that pleasures were goods and pains evils?
CALLICLES: Yes, I remember. SOCRATES: And are not these pleasures or goods
present to those who rejoice—if they do rejoice?
CALLICLES: Certainly. SOCRATES: Then those who rejoice are good
when goods are present with them? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And those who are in pain have evil or sorrow present with them?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And would you still say that the
evil are evil by reason of the presence of evil?
CALLICLES: I should. SOCRATES: Then those who rejoice are good,
and those who are in pain evil? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: The degrees of good and evil vary with the degrees of pleasure and of pain?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: Have the wise man and the fool,
the brave and the coward, joy and pain in nearly equal degrees? or would you say that
the coward has more? CALLICLES: I should say that he has.
SOCRATES: Help me then to draw out the conclusion which follows from our admissions; for it
is good to repeat and review what is good twice and thrice over, as they say. Both the
wise man and the brave man we allow to be good?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And the foolish man and the coward
to be evil? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: And he who has joy is good? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And he who is in pain is evil? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: The good and evil both have joy and pain, but, perhaps, the evil has more
of them? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: Then must we not infer, that the bad man is as good and bad as the good, or,
perhaps, even better?—is not this a further inference which follows equally with the preceding
from the assertion that the good and the pleasant are the same:—can this be denied, Callicles?
CALLICLES: I have been listening and making admissions to you, Socrates; and I remark
that if a person grants you anything in play, you, like a child, want to keep hold and will
not give it back. But do you really suppose that I or any other human being denies that
some pleasures are good and others bad? SOCRATES: Alas, Callicles, how unfair you
are! you certainly treat me as if I were a child, sometimes saying one thing, and then
another, as if you were meaning to deceive me. And yet I thought at first that you were
my friend, and would not have deceived me if you could have helped. But I see that I
was mistaken; and now I suppose that I must make the best of a bad business, as they said
of old, and take what I can get out of you.—Well, then, as I understand you to say, I may assume
that some pleasures are good and others evil? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: The beneficial are good, and the hurtful are evil?
CALLICLES: To be sure. SOCRATES: And the beneficial are those which
do some good, and the hurtful are those which do some evil?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: Take, for example, the bodily pleasures
of eating and drinking, which we were just now mentioning—you mean to say that those
which promote health, or any other bodily excellence, are good, and their opposites
evil? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: And in the same way there are good pains and there are evil pains?
CALLICLES: To be sure. SOCRATES: And ought we not to choose and use
the good pleasures and pains? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: But not the evil? CALLICLES: Clearly.
SOCRATES: Because, if you remember, Polus and I have agreed that all our actions are
to be done for the sake of the good;—and will you agree with us in saying, that the
good is the end of all our actions, and that all our actions are to be done for the sake
of the good, and not the good for the sake of them?—will you add a third vote to our
two? CALLICLES: I will.
SOCRATES: Then pleasure, like everything else, is to be sought for the sake of that which
is good, and not that which is good for the sake of pleasure?
CALLICLES: To be sure. SOCRATES: But can every man choose what pleasures
are good and what are evil, or must he have art or knowledge of them in detail?
CALLICLES: He must have art. SOCRATES: Let me now remind you of what I
was saying to Gorgias and Polus; I was saying, as you will not have forgotten, that there
were some processes which aim only at pleasure, and know nothing of a better and worse, and
there are other processes which know good and evil. And I considered that cookery, which
I do not call an art, but only an experience, was of the former class, which is concerned
with pleasure, and that the art of medicine was of the class which is concerned with the
good. And now, by the god of friendship, I must beg you, Callicles, not to jest, or to
imagine that I am jesting with you; do not answer at random and contrary to your real
opinion—for you will observe that we are arguing about the way of human life; and to
a man who has any sense at all, what question can be more serious than this?—whether he
should follow after that way of life to which you exhort me, and act what you call the manly
part of speaking in the assembly, and cultivating rhetoric, and engaging in public affairs,
according to the principles now in vogue; or whether he should pursue the life of philosophy;—and
in what the latter way differs from the former. But perhaps we had better first try to distinguish
them, as I did before, and when we have come to an agreement that they are distinct, we
may proceed to consider in what they differ from one another, and which of them we should
choose. Perhaps, however, you do not even now understand what I mean?
CALLICLES: No, I do not. SOCRATES: Then I will explain myself more
clearly: seeing that you and I have agreed that there is such a thing as good, and that
there is such a thing as pleasure, and that pleasure is not the same as good, and that
the pursuit and process of acquisition of the one, that is pleasure, is different from
the pursuit and process of acquisition of the other, which is good—I wish that you
would tell me whether you agree with me thus far or not—do you agree?
CALLICLES: I do. SOCRATES: Then I will proceed, and ask whether
you also agree with me, and whether you think that I spoke the truth when I further said
to Gorgias and Polus that cookery in my opinion is only an experience, and not an art at all;
and that whereas medicine is an art, and attends to the nature and constitution of the patient,
and has principles of action and reason in each case, cookery in attending upon pleasure
never regards either the nature or reason of that pleasure to which she devotes herself,
but goes straight to her end, nor ever considers or calculates anything, but works by experience
and routine, and just preserves the recollection of what she has usually done when producing
pleasure. And first, I would have you consider whether I have proved what I was saying, and
then whether there are not other similar processes which have to do with the soul—some of them
processes of art, making a provision for the soul's highest interest—others despising
the interest, and, as in the previous case, considering only the pleasure of the soul,
and how this may be acquired, but not considering what pleasures are good or bad, and having
no other aim but to afford gratification, whether good or bad. In my opinion, Callicles,
there are such processes, and this is the sort of thing which I term flattery, whether
concerned with the body or the soul, or whenever employed with a view to pleasure and without
any consideration of good and evil. And now I wish that you would tell me whether you
agree with us in this notion, or whether you differ.
CALLICLES: I do not differ; on the contrary, I agree; for in that way I shall soonest bring
the argument to an end, and shall oblige my friend Gorgias.
SOCRATES: And is this notion true of one soul, or of two or more?
CALLICLES: Equally true of two or more. SOCRATES: Then a man may delight a whole assembly,
and yet have no regard for their true interests? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: Can you tell me the pursuits which delight mankind—or rather, if you would
prefer, let me ask, and do you answer, which of them belong to the pleasurable class, and
which of them not? In the first place, what say you of flute-playing? Does not that appear
to be an art which seeks only pleasure, Callicles, and thinks of nothing else?
CALLICLES: I assent. SOCRATES: And is not the same true of all
similar arts, as, for example, the art of playing the lyre at festivals?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And what do you say of the choral
art and of dithyrambic poetry?—are not they of the same nature? Do you imagine that Cinesias
the son of Meles cares about what will tend to the moral improvement of his hearers, or
about what will give pleasure to the multitude? CALLICLES: There can be no mistake about Cinesias,
Socrates. SOCRATES: And what do you say of his father,
Meles the harp-player? Did he perform with any view to the good of his hearers? Could
he be said to regard even their pleasure? For his singing was an infliction to his audience.
And of harp-playing and dithyrambic poetry in general, what would you say? Have they
not been invented wholly for the sake of pleasure? CALLICLES: That is my notion of them.
SOCRATES: And as for the Muse of Tragedy, that solemn and august personage—what are
her aspirations? Is all her aim and desire only to give pleasure to the spectators, or
does she fight against them and refuse to speak of their pleasant vices, and willingly
proclaim in word and song truths welcome and unwelcome?—which in your judgment is her
character? CALLICLES: There can be no doubt, Socrates,
that Tragedy has her face turned towards pleasure and the gratification of the audience.
SOCRATES: And is not that the sort of thing, Callicles, which we were just now describing
as flattery? CALLICLES: Quite true.
SOCRATES: Well now, suppose that we strip all poetry of song and rhythm and metre, there
will remain speech? (Compare Republic.) CALLICLES: To be sure.
SOCRATES: And this speech is addressed to a crowd of people?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: Then poetry is a sort of rhetoric?
CALLICLES: True. SOCRATES: And do not the poets in the theatres
seem to you to be rhetoricians? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: Then now we have discovered a sort of rhetoric which is addressed to a crowd
of men, women, and children, freemen and slaves. And this is not much to our taste, for we
have described it as having the nature of flattery.
CALLICLES: Quite true. SOCRATES: Very good. And what do you say of
that other rhetoric which addresses the Athenian assembly and the assemblies of freemen in
other states? Do the rhetoricians appear to you always to aim at what is best, and do
they seek to improve the citizens by their speeches, or are they too, like the rest of
mankind, bent upon giving them pleasure, forgetting the public good in the thought of their own
interest, playing with the people as with children, and trying to amuse them, but never
considering whether they are better or worse for this?
CALLICLES: I must distinguish. There are some who have a real care of the public in what
they say, while others are such as you describe. SOCRATES: I am contented with the admission
that rhetoric is of two sorts; one, which is mere flattery and disgraceful declamation;
the other, which is noble and aims at the training and improvement of the souls of the
citizens, and strives to say what is best, whether welcome or unwelcome, to the audience;
but have you ever known such a rhetoric; or if you have, and can point out any rhetorician
who is of this stamp, who is he? CALLICLES: But, indeed, I am afraid that I
cannot tell you of any such among the orators who are at present living.
SOCRATES: Well, then, can you mention any one of a former generation, who may be said
to have improved the Athenians, who found them worse and made them better, from the
day that he began to make speeches? for, indeed, I do not know of such a man.
CALLICLES: What! did you never hear that Themistocles was a good man, and Cimon and Miltiades and
Pericles, who is just lately dead, and whom you heard yourself?
SOCRATES: Yes, Callicles, they were good men, if, as you said at first, true virtue consists
only in the satisfaction of our own desires and those of others; but if not, and if, as
we were afterwards compelled to acknowledge, the satisfaction of some desires makes us
better, and of others, worse, and we ought to gratify the one and not the other, and
there is an art in distinguishing them,—can you tell me of any of these statesmen who
did distinguish them? CALLICLES: No, indeed, I cannot.
SOCRATES: Yet, surely, Callicles, if you look you will find such a one. Suppose that we
just calmly consider whether any of these was such as I have described. Will not the
good man, who says whatever he says with a view to the best, speak with a reference to
some standard and not at random; just as all other artists, whether the painter, the builder,
the shipwright, or any other look all of them to their own work, and do not select and apply
at random what they apply, but strive to give a definite form to it? The artist disposes
all things in order, and compels the one part to harmonize and accord with the other part,
until he has constructed a regular and systematic whole; and this is true of all artists, and
in the same way the trainers and physicians, of whom we spoke before, give order and regularity
to the body: do you deny this? CALLICLES: No; I am ready to admit it.
SOCRATES: Then the house in which order and regularity prevail is good; that in which
there is disorder, evil? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And the same is true of a ship? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And the same may be said of the human body?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And what would you say of the soul?
Will the good soul be that in which disorder is prevalent, or that in which there is harmony
and order? CALLICLES: The latter follows from our previous
admissions. SOCRATES: What is the name which is given
to the effect of harmony and order in the body?
CALLICLES: I suppose that you mean health and strength?
SOCRATES: Yes, I do; and what is the name which you would give to the effect of harmony
and order in the soul? Try and discover a name for this as well as for the other.
CALLICLES: Why not give the name yourself, Socrates?
SOCRATES: Well, if you had rather that I should, I will; and you shall say whether you agree
with me, and if not, you shall refute and answer me. 'Healthy,' as I conceive, is the
name which is given to the regular order of the body, whence comes health and every other
bodily excellence: is that true or not? CALLICLES: True.
SOCRATES: And 'lawful' and 'law' are the names which are given to the regular order and action
of the soul, and these make men lawful and orderly:—and so we have temperance and justice:
have we not? CALLICLES: Granted.
SOCRATES: And will not the true rhetorician who is honest and understands his art have
his eye fixed upon these, in all the words which he addresses to the souls of men, and
in all his actions, both in what he gives and in what he takes away? Will not his aim
be to implant justice in the souls of his citizens and take away injustice, to implant
temperance and take away intemperance, to implant every virtue and take away every vice?
Do you not agree? CALLICLES: I agree.
SOCRATES: For what use is there, Callicles, in giving to the body of a sick man who is
in a bad state of health a quantity of the most delightful food or drink or any other
pleasant thing, which may be really as bad for him as if you gave him nothing, or even
worse if rightly estimated. Is not that true? CALLICLES: I will not say No to it.
SOCRATES: For in my opinion there is no profit in a man's life if his body is in an evil
plight—in that case his life also is evil: am I not right?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: When a man is in health the physicians
will generally allow him to eat when he is hungry and drink when he is thirsty, and to
satisfy his desires as he likes, but when he is sick they hardly suffer him to satisfy
his desires at all: even you will admit that? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And does not the same argument hold of the soul, my good sir? While she is in
a bad state and is senseless and intemperate and unjust and unholy, her desires ought to
be controlled, and she ought to be prevented from doing anything which does not tend to
her own improvement. CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: Such treatment will be better for the soul herself?
CALLICLES: To be sure. SOCRATES: And to restrain her from her appetites
is to chastise her? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: Then restraint or chastisement is better for the soul than intemperance or the
absence of control, which you were just now preferring?
CALLICLES: I do not understand you, Socrates, and I wish that you would ask some one who
does. SOCRATES: Here is a gentleman who cannot endure
to be improved or to subject himself to that very chastisement of which the argument speaks!
CALLICLES: I do not heed a word of what you are saying, and have only answered hitherto
out of civility to Gorgias. SOCRATES: What are we to do, then? Shall we
break off in the middle? CALLICLES: You shall judge for yourself.
SOCRATES: Well, but people say that 'a tale should have a head and not break off in the
middle,' and I should not like to have the argument going about without a head (compare
Laws); please then to go on a little longer, and put the head on.
CALLICLES: How tyrannical you are, Socrates! I wish that you and your argument would rest,
or that you would get some one else to argue with you.
SOCRATES: But who else is willing?—I want to finish the argument.
CALLICLES: Cannot you finish without my help, either talking straight on, or questioning
and answering yourself? SOCRATES: Must I then say with Epicharmus,
'Two men spoke before, but now one shall be enough'? I suppose that there is absolutely
no help. And if I am to carry on the enquiry by myself, I will first of all remark that
not only I but all of us should have an ambition to know what is true and what is false in
this matter, for the discovery of the truth is a common good. And now I will proceed to
argue according to my own notion. But if any of you think that I arrive at conclusions
which are untrue you must interpose and refute me, for I do not speak from any knowledge
of what I am saying; I am an enquirer like yourselves, and therefore, if my opponent
says anything which is of force, I shall be the first to agree with him. I am speaking
on the supposition that the argument ought to be completed; but if you think otherwise
let us leave off and go our ways. GORGIAS: I think, Socrates, that we should
not go our ways until you have completed the argument; and this appears to me to be the
wish of the rest of the company; I myself should very much like to hear what more you
have to say. SOCRATES: I too, Gorgias, should have liked
to continue the argument with Callicles, and then I might have given him an 'Amphion' in
return for his 'Zethus'; but since you, Callicles, are unwilling to continue, I hope that you
will listen, and interrupt me if I seem to you to be in error. And if you refute me,
I shall not be angry with you as you are with me, but I shall inscribe you as the greatest
of benefactors on the tablets of my soul. CALLICLES: My good fellow, never mind me,
but get on. SOCRATES: Listen to me, then, while I recapitulate
the argument:—Is the pleasant the same as the good? Not the same. Callicles and I are
agreed about that. And is the pleasant to be pursued for the sake of the good? or the
good for the sake of the pleasant? The pleasant is to be pursued for the sake of the good.
And that is pleasant at the presence of which we are pleased, and that is good at the presence
of which we are good? To be sure. And we are good, and all good things whatever are good
when some virtue is present in us or them? That, Callicles, is my conviction. But the
virtue of each thing, whether body or soul, instrument or creature, when given to them
in the best way comes to them not by chance but as the result of the order and truth and
art which are imparted to them: Am I not right? I maintain that I am. And is not the virtue
of each thing dependent on order or arrangement? Yes, I say. And that which makes a thing good
is the proper order inhering in each thing? Such is my view. And is not the soul which
has an order of her own better than that which has no order? Certainly. And the soul which
has order is orderly? Of course. And that which is orderly is temperate? Assuredly.
And the temperate soul is good? No other answer can I give, Callicles dear; have you any?
CALLICLES: Go on, my good fellow. SOCRATES: Then I shall proceed to add, that
if the temperate soul is the good soul, the soul which is in the opposite condition, that
is, the foolish and intemperate, is the bad soul. Very true.
And will not the temperate man do what is proper, both in relation to the gods and to
men;—for he would not be temperate if he did not? Certainly he will do what is proper.
In his relation to other men he will do what is just; and in his relation to the gods he
will do what is holy; and he who does what is just and holy must be just and holy? Very
true. And must he not be courageous? for the duty of a temperate man is not to follow or
to avoid what he ought not, but what he ought, whether things or men or pleasures or pains,
and patiently to endure when he ought; and therefore, Callicles, the temperate man, being,
as we have described, also just and courageous and holy, cannot be other than a perfectly
good man, nor can the good man do otherwise than well and perfectly whatever he does;
and he who does well must of necessity be happy and blessed, and the evil man who does
evil, miserable: now this latter is he whom you were applauding—the intemperate who
is the opposite of the temperate. Such is my position, and these things I affirm to
be true. And if they are true, then I further affirm that he who desires to be happy must
pursue and practise temperance and run away from intemperance as fast as his legs will
carry him: he had better order his life so as not to need punishment; but if either he
or any of his friends, whether private individual or city, are in need of punishment, then justice
must be done and he must suffer punishment, if he would be happy. This appears to me to
be the aim which a man ought to have, and towards which he ought to direct all the energies
both of himself and of the state, acting so that he may have temperance and justice present
with him and be happy, not suffering his lusts to be unrestrained, and in the never-ending
desire satisfy them leading a robber's life. Such a one is the friend neither of God nor
man, for he is incapable of communion, and he who is incapable of communion is also incapable
of friendship. And philosophers tell us, Callicles, that communion and friendship and orderliness
and temperance and justice bind together heaven and earth and gods and men, and that this
universe is therefore called Cosmos or order, not disorder or misrule, my friend. But although
you are a philosopher you seem to me never to have observed that geometrical equality
is mighty, both among gods and men; you think that you ought to cultivate inequality or
excess, and do not care about geometry.—Well, then, either the principle that the happy
are made happy by the possession of justice and temperance, and the miserable miserable
by the possession of vice, must be refuted, or, if it is granted, what will be the consequences?
All the consequences which I drew before, Callicles, and about which you asked me whether
I was in earnest when I said that a man ought to accuse himself and his son and his friend
if he did anything wrong, and that to this end he should use his rhetoric—all those
consequences are true. And that which you thought that Polus was led to admit out of
modesty is true, viz., that, to do injustice, if more disgraceful than to suffer, is in
that degree worse; and the other position, which, according to Polus, Gorgias admitted
out of modesty, that he who would truly be a rhetorician ought to be just and have a
knowledge of justice, has also turned out to be true.
And now, these things being as we have said, let us proceed in the next place to consider
whether you are right in throwing in my teeth that I am unable to help myself or any of
my friends or kinsmen, or to save them in the extremity of danger, and that I am in
the power of another like an outlaw to whom any one may do what he likes,—he may box
my ears, which was a brave saying of yours; or take away my goods or banish me, or even
do his worst and kill me; a condition which, as you say, is the height of disgrace. My
answer to you is one which has been already often repeated, but may as well be repeated
once more. I tell you, Callicles, that to be boxed on the ears wrongfully is not the
worst evil which can befall a man, nor to have my purse or my body cut open, but that
to smite and slay me and mine wrongfully is far more disgraceful and more evil; aye, and
to despoil and enslave and pillage, or in any way at all to wrong me and mine, is far
more disgraceful and evil to the doer of the wrong than to me who am the sufferer. These
truths, which have been already set forth as I state them in the previous discussion,
would seem now to have been fixed and riveted by us, if I may use an expression which is
certainly bold, in words which are like bonds of iron and adamant; and unless you or some
other still more enterprising hero shall break them, there is no possibility of denying what
I say. For my position has always been, that I myself am ignorant how these things are,
but that I have never met any one who could say otherwise, any more than you can, and
not appear ridiculous. This is my position still, and if what I am saying is true, and
injustice is the greatest of evils to the doer of injustice, and yet there is if possible
a greater than this greatest of evils (compare Republic), in an unjust man not suffering
retribution, what is that defence of which the want will make a man truly ridiculous?
Must not the defence be one which will avert the greatest of human evils? And will not
the worst of all defences be that with which a man is unable to defend himself or his family
or his friends?—and next will come that which is unable to avert the next greatest
evil; thirdly that which is unable to avert the third greatest evil; and so of other evils.
As is the greatness of evil so is the honour of being able to avert them in their several
degrees, and the disgrace of not being able to avert them. Am I not right Callicles?
CALLICLES: Yes, quite right. SOCRATES: Seeing then that there are these
two evils, the doing injustice and the suffering injustice—and we affirm that to do injustice
is a greater, and to suffer injustice a lesser evil—by what devices can a man succeed in
obtaining the two advantages, the one of not doing and the other of not suffering injustice?
must he have the power, or only the will to obtain them? I mean to ask whether a man will
escape injustice if he has only the will to escape, or must he have provided himself with
the power? CALLICLES: He must have provided himself with
the power; that is clear. SOCRATES: And what do you say of doing injustice?
Is the will only sufficient, and will that prevent him from doing injustice, or must
he have provided himself with power and art; and if he have not studied and practised,
will he be unjust still? Surely you might say, Callicles, whether you think that Polus
and I were right in admitting the conclusion that no one does wrong voluntarily, but that
all do wrong against their will? CALLICLES: Granted, Socrates, if you will
only have done. SOCRATES: Then, as would appear, power and
art have to be provided in order that we may do no injustice?
CALLICLES: Certainly. SOCRATES: And what art will protect us from
suffering injustice, if not wholly, yet as far as possible? I want to know whether you
agree with me; for I think that such an art is the art of one who is either a ruler or
even tyrant himself, or the equal and companion of the ruling power.
CALLICLES: Well said, Socrates; and please to observe how ready I am to praise you when
you talk sense. SOCRATES: Think and tell me whether you would
approve of another view of mine: To me every man appears to be most the friend of him who
is most like to him—like to like, as ancient sages say: Would you not agree to this?
CALLICLES: I should. SOCRATES: But when the tyrant is rude and
uneducated, he may be expected to fear any one who is his superior in virtue, and will
never be able to be perfectly friendly with him.
CALLICLES: That is true. SOCRATES: Neither will he be the friend of
any one who is greatly his inferior, for the tyrant will despise him, and will never seriously
regard him as a friend. CALLICLES: That again is true.
SOCRATES: Then the only friend worth mentioning, whom the tyrant can have, will be one who
is of the same character, and has the same likes and dislikes, and is at the same time
willing to be subject and subservient to him; he is the man who will have power in the state,
and no one will injure him with impunity:—is not that so?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And if a young man begins to ask
how he may become great and formidable, this would seem to be the way—he will accustom
himself, from his youth upward, to feel sorrow and joy on the same occasions as his master,
and will contrive to be as like him as possible? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And in this way he will have accomplished, as you and your friends would say, the end
of becoming a great man and not suffering injury?
CALLICLES: Very true. SOCRATES: But will he also escape from doing
injury? Must not the very opposite be true,—if he is to be like the tyrant in his injustice,
and to have influence with him? Will he not rather contrive to do as much wrong as possible,
and not be punished? CALLICLES: True.
SOCRATES: And by the imitation of his master and by the power which he thus acquires will
not his soul become bad and corrupted, and will not this be the greatest evil to him?
CALLICLES: You always contrive somehow or other, Socrates, to invert everything: do
you not know that he who imitates the tyrant will, if he has a mind, kill him who does
not imitate him and take away his goods? SOCRATES: Excellent Callicles, I am not deaf,
and I have heard that a great many times from you and from Polus and from nearly every man
in the city, but I wish that you would hear me too. I dare say that he will kill him if
he has a mind—the bad man will kill the good and true.
CALLICLES: And is not that just the provoking thing?
SOCRATES: Nay, not to a man of sense, as the argument shows: do you think that all our
cares should be directed to prolonging life to the uttermost, and to the study of those
arts which secure us from danger always; like that art of rhetoric which saves men in courts
of law, and which you advise me to cultivate? CALLICLES: Yes, truly, and very good advice
too. SOCRATES: Well, my friend, but what do you
think of swimming; is that an art of any great pretensions?
CALLICLES: No, indeed. SOCRATES: And yet surely swimming saves a
man from death, and there are occasions on which he must know how to swim. And if you
despise the swimmers, I will tell you of another and greater art, the art of the pilot, who
not only saves the souls of men, but also their bodies and properties from the extremity
of danger, just like rhetoric. Yet his art is modest and unpresuming: it has no airs
or pretences of doing anything extraordinary, and, in return for the same salvation which
is given by the pleader, demands only two obols, if he brings us from Aegina to Athens,
or for the longer voyage from Pontus or Egypt, at the utmost two drachmae, when he has saved,
as I was just now saying, the passenger and his wife and children and goods, and safely
disembarked them at the Piraeus,—this is the payment which he asks in return for so
great a boon; and he who is the master of the art, and has done all this, gets out and
walks about on the sea-shore by his ship in an unassuming way. For he is able to reflect
and is aware that he cannot tell which of his fellow-passengers he has benefited, and
which of them he has injured in not allowing them to be drowned. He knows that they are
just the same when he has disembarked them as when they embarked, and not a whit better
either in their bodies or in their souls; and he considers that if a man who is afflicted
by great and incurable bodily diseases is only to be pitied for having escaped, and
is in no way benefited by him in having been saved from drowning, much less he who has
great and incurable diseases, not of the body, but of the soul, which is the more valuable
part of him; neither is life worth having nor of any profit to the bad man, whether
he be delivered from the sea, or the law-courts, or any other devourer;—and so he reflects
that such a one had better not live, for he cannot live well. (Compare Republic.)
And this is the reason why the pilot, although he is our saviour, is not usually conceited,
any more than the engineer, who is not at all behind either the general, or the pilot,
or any one else, in his saving power, for he sometimes saves whole cities. Is there
any comparison between him and the pleader? And if he were to talk, Callicles, in your
grandiose style, he would bury you under a mountain of words, declaring and insisting
that we ought all of us to be engine-makers, and that no other profession is worth thinking
about; he would have plenty to say. Nevertheless you despise him and his art, and sneeringly
call him an engine-maker, and you will not allow your daughters to marry his son, or
marry your son to his daughters. And yet, on your principle, what justice or reason
is there in your refusal? What right have you to despise the engine-maker, and the others
whom I was just now mentioning? I know that you will say, 'I am better, and better born.'
But if the better is not what I say, and virtue consists only in a man saving himself and
his, whatever may be his character, then your censure of the engine-maker, and of the physician,
and of the other arts of salvation, is ridiculous. O my friend! I want you to see that the noble
and the good may possibly be something different from saving and being saved:—May not he
who is truly a man cease to care about living a certain time?—he knows, as women say,
that no man can escape fate, and therefore he is not fond of life; he leaves all that
with God, and considers in what way he can best spend his appointed term;—whether by
assimilating himself to the constitution under which he lives, as you at this moment have
to consider how you may become as like as possible to the Athenian people, if you mean
to be in their good graces, and to have power in the state; whereas I want you to think
and see whether this is for the interest of either of us;—I would not have us risk that
which is dearest on the acquisition of this power, like the Thessalian enchantresses,
who, as they say, bring down the moon from heaven at the risk of their own perdition.
But if you suppose that any man will show you the art of becoming great in the city,
and yet not conforming yourself to the ways of the city, whether for better or worse,
then I can only say that you are mistaken, Callides; for he who would deserve to be the
true natural friend of the Athenian Demus, aye, or of Pyrilampes' darling who is called
after them, must be by nature like them, and not an imitator only. He, then, who will make
you most like them, will make you as you desire, a statesman and orator: for every man is pleased
when he is spoken to in his own language and spirit, and dislikes any other. But perhaps
you, sweet Callicles, may be of another mind. What do you say?
CALLICLES: Somehow or other your words, Socrates, always appear to me to be good words; and
yet, like the rest of the world, I am not quite convinced by them. (Compare Symp.: 1
Alcib.) SOCRATES: The reason is, Callicles, that the
love of Demus which abides in your soul is an adversary to me; but I dare say that if
we recur to these same matters, and consider them more thoroughly, you may be convinced
for all that. Please, then, to remember that there are two processes of training all things,
including body and soul; in the one, as we said, we treat them with a view to pleasure,
and in the other with a view to the highest good, and then we do not indulge but resist
them: was not that the distinction which we drew?
CALLICLES: Very true. SOCRATES: And the one which had pleasure in
view was just a vulgar flattery:—was not that another of our conclusions?
CALLICLES: Be it so, if you will have it. SOCRATES: And the other had in view the greatest
improvement of that which was ministered to, whether body or soul?
CALLICLES: Quite true. SOCRATES: And must we not have the same end
in view in the treatment of our city and citizens? Must we not try and make them as good as possible?
For we have already discovered that there is no use in imparting to them any other good,
unless the mind of those who are to have the good, whether money, or office, or any other
sort of power, be gentle and good. Shall we say that?
CALLICLES: Yes, certainly, if you like. SOCRATES: Well, then, if you and I, Callicles,
were intending to set about some public business, and were advising one another to undertake
buildings, such as walls, docks or temples of the largest size, ought we not to examine
ourselves, first, as to whether we know or do not know the art of building, and who taught
us?—would not that be necessary, Callicles? CALLICLES: True.
SOCRATES: In the second place, we should have to consider whether we had ever constructed
any private house, either of our own or for our friends, and whether this building of
ours was a success or not; and if upon consideration we found that we had had good and eminent
masters, and had been successful in constructing many fine buildings, not only with their assistance,
but without them, by our own unaided skill—in that case prudence would not dissuade us from
proceeding to the construction of public works. But if we had no master to show, and only
a number of worthless buildings or none at all, then, surely, it would be ridiculous
in us to attempt public works, or to advise one another to undertake them. Is not this
true? CALLICLES: Certainly.
SOCRATES: And does not the same hold in all other cases? If you and I were physicians,
and were advising one another that we were competent to practise as state-physicians,
should I not ask about you, and would you not ask about me, Well, but how about Socrates
himself, has he good health? and was any one else ever known to be cured by him, whether
slave or freeman? And I should make the same enquiries about you. And if we arrived at
the conclusion that no one, whether citizen or stranger, man or woman, had ever been any
the better for the medical skill of either of us, then, by Heaven, Callicles, what an
absurdity to think that we or any human being should be so silly as to set up as state-physicians
and advise others like ourselves to do the same, without having first practised in private,
whether successfully or not, and acquired experience of the art! Is not this, as they
say, to begin with the big jar when you are learning the potter's art; which is a foolish
thing? CALLICLES: True.
SOCRATES: And now, my friend, as you are already beginning to be a public character, and are
admonishing and reproaching me for not being one, suppose that we ask a few questions of
one another. Tell me, then, Callicles, how about making any of the citizens better? Was
there ever a man who was once vicious, or unjust, or intemperate, or foolish, and became
by the help of Callicles good and noble? Was there ever such a man, whether citizen or
stranger, slave or freeman? Tell me, Callicles, if a person were to ask these questions of
you, what would you answer? Whom would you say that you had improved by your conversation?
There may have been good deeds of this sort which were done by you as a private person,
before you came forward in public. Why will you not answer?
CALLICLES: You are contentious, Socrates. SOCRATES: Nay, I ask you, not from a love
of contention, but because I really want to know in what way you think that affairs should
be administered among us—whether, when you come to the administration of them, you have
any other aim but the improvement of the citizens? Have we not already admitted many times over
that such is the duty of a public man? Nay, we have surely said so; for if you will not
answer for yourself I must answer for you. But if this is what the good man ought to
effect for the benefit of his own state, allow me to recall to you the names of those whom
you were just now mentioning, Pericles, and Cimon, and Miltiades, and Themistocles, and
ask whether you still think that they were good citizens.
CALLICLES: I do. SOCRATES: But if they were good, then clearly
each of them must have made the citizens better instead of worse?
CALLICLES: Yes. SOCRATES: And, therefore, when Pericles first
began to speak in the assembly, the Athenians were not so good as when he spoke last?
CALLICLES: Very likely. SOCRATES: Nay, my friend, 'likely' is not
the word; for if he was a good citizen, the inference is certain.
CALLICLES: And what difference does that make? SOCRATES: None; only I should like further
to know whether the Athenians are supposed to have been made better by Pericles, or,
on the contrary, to have been corrupted by him; for I hear that he was the first who
gave the people pay, and made them idle and cowardly, and encouraged them in the love
of talk and money. CALLICLES: You heard that, Socrates, from
the laconising set who bruise their ears. SOCRATES: But what I am going to tell you
now is not mere hearsay, but well known both to you and me: that at first, Pericles was
glorious and his character unimpeached by any verdict of the Athenians—this was during
the time when they were not so good—yet afterwards, when they had been made good and
gentle by him, at the very end of his life they convicted him of theft, and almost put
him to death, clearly under the notion that he was a malefactor.
CALLICLES: Well, but how does that prove Pericles' badness?
SOCRATES: Why, surely you would say that he was a bad manager of *** or horses or oxen,
who had received them originally neither kicking nor butting nor biting him, and implanted
in them all these savage tricks? Would he not be a bad manager of any animals who received
them gentle, and made them fiercer than they were when he received them? What do you say?
CALLICLES: I will do you the favour of saying 'yes.'
SOCRATES: And will you also do me the favour of saying whether man is an animal?
CALLICLES: Certainly he is. SOCRATES: And was not Pericles a shepherd
of men? CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: And if he was a good political shepherd, ought not the animals who were his subjects,
as we were just now acknowledging, to have become more just, and not more unjust?
CALLICLES: Quite true. SOCRATES: And are not just men gentle, as
Homer says?—or are you of another mind? CALLICLES: I agree.
SOCRATES: And yet he really did make them more savage than he received them, and their
savageness was shown towards himself; which he must have been very far from desiring.
CALLICLES: Do you want me to agree with you? SOCRATES: Yes, if I seem to you to speak the
truth. CALLICLES: Granted then.
SOCRATES: And if they were more savage, must they not have been more unjust and inferior?
CALLICLES: Granted again. SOCRATES: Then upon this view, Pericles was
not a good statesman? CALLICLES: That is, upon your view.
SOCRATES: Nay, the view is yours, after what you have admitted. Take the case of Cimon
again. Did not the very persons whom he was serving ostracize him, in order that they
might not hear his voice for ten years? and they did just the same to Themistocles, adding
the penalty of exile; and they voted that Miltiades, the hero of Marathon, should be
thrown into the pit of death, and he was only saved by the Prytanis. And yet, if they had
been really good men, as you say, these things would never have happened to them. For the
good charioteers are not those who at first keep their place, and then, when they have
broken-in their horses, and themselves become better charioteers, are thrown out—that
is not the way either in charioteering or in any profession.—What do you think?
CALLICLES: I should think not. SOCRATES: Well, but if so, the truth is as
I have said already, that in the Athenian State no one has ever shown himself to be
a good statesman—you admitted that this was true of our present statesmen, but not
true of former ones, and you preferred them to the others; yet they have turned out to
be no better than our present ones; and therefore, if they were rhetoricians, they did not use
the true art of rhetoric or of flattery, or they would not have fallen out of favour.
CALLICLES: But surely, Socrates, no living man ever came near any one of them in his
performances. SOCRATES: O, my dear friend, I say nothing
against them regarded as the serving-men of the State; and I do think that they were certainly
more serviceable than those who are living now, and better able to gratify the wishes
of the State; but as to transforming those desires and not allowing them to have their
way, and using the powers which they had, whether of persuasion or of force, in the
improvement of their fellow citizens, which is the prime object of the truly good citizen,
I do not see that in these respects they were a whit superior to our present statesmen,
although I do admit that they were more clever at providing ships and walls and docks, and
all that. You and I have a ridiculous way, for during the whole time that we are arguing,
we are always going round and round to the same point, and constantly misunderstanding
one another. If I am not mistaken, you have admitted and acknowledged more than once,
that there are two kinds of operations which have to do with the body, and two which have
to do with the soul: one of the two is ministerial, and if our bodies are hungry provides food
for them, and if they are thirsty gives them drink, or if they are cold supplies them with
garments, blankets, shoes, and all that they crave. I use the same images as before intentionally,
in order that you may understand me the better. The purveyor of the articles may provide them
either wholesale or retail, or he may be the maker of any of them,—the baker, or the
cook, or the weaver, or the shoemaker, or the currier; and in so doing, being such as
he is, he is naturally supposed by himself and every one to minister to the body. For
none of them know that there is another art—an art of gymnastic and medicine which is the
true minister of the body, and ought to be the mistress of all the rest, and to use their
results according to the knowledge which she has and they have not, of the real good or
bad effects of meats and drinks on the body. All other arts which have to do with the body
are servile and menial and illiberal; and gymnastic and medicine are, as they ought
to be, their mistresses. Now, when I say that all this is equally true of the soul, you
seem at first to know and understand and assent to my words, and then a little while afterwards
you come repeating, Has not the State had good and noble citizens? and when I ask you
who they are, you reply, seemingly quite in earnest, as if I had asked, Who are or have
been good trainers?—and you had replied, Thearion, the baker, Mithoecus, who wrote
the Sicilian cookery-book, Sarambus, the vintner: these are ministers of the body, first-rate
in their art; for the first makes admirable loaves, the second excellent dishes, and the
third capital wine;—to me these appear to be the exact parallel of the statesmen whom
you mention. Now you would not be altogether pleased if I said to you, My friend, you know
nothing of gymnastics; those of whom you are speaking to me are only the ministers and
purveyors of luxury, who have no good or noble notions of their art, and may very likely
be filling and fattening men's bodies and gaining their approval, although the result
is that they lose their original flesh in the long run, and become thinner than they
were before; and yet they, in their simplicity, will not attribute their diseases and loss
of flesh to their entertainers; but when in after years the unhealthy surfeit brings the
attendant penalty of disease, he who happens to be near them at the time, and offers them
advice, is accused and blamed by them, and if they could they would do him some harm;
while they proceed to eulogize the men who have been the real authors of the mischief.
And that, Callicles, is just what you are now doing. You praise the men who feasted
the citizens and satisfied their desires, and people say that they have made the city
great, not seeing that the swollen and ulcerated condition of the State is to be attributed
to these elder statesmen; for they have filled the city full of harbours and docks and walls
and revenues and all that, and have left no room for justice and temperance. And when
the crisis of the disorder comes, the people will blame the advisers of the hour, and applaud
Themistocles and Cimon and Pericles, who are the real authors of their calamities; and
if you are not careful they may assail you and my friend Alcibiades, when they are losing
not only their new acquisitions, but also their original possessions; not that you are
the authors of these misfortunes of theirs, although you may perhaps be accessories to
them. A great piece of work is always being made, as I see and am told, now as of old;
about our statesmen. When the State treats any of them as malefactors, I observe that
there is a great uproar and indignation at the supposed wrong which is done to them;
'after all their many services to the State, that they should unjustly perish,'—so the
tale runs. But the cry is all a lie; for no statesman ever could be unjustly put to death
by the city of which he is the head. The case of the professed statesman is, I believe,
very much like that of the professed sophist; for the sophists, although they are wise men,
are nevertheless guilty of a strange piece of folly; professing to be teachers of virtue,
they will often accuse their disciples of wronging them, and defrauding them of their
pay, and showing no gratitude for their services. Yet what can be more absurd than that men
who have become just and good, and whose injustice has been taken away from them, and who have
had justice implanted in them by their teachers, should act unjustly by reason of the injustice
which is not in them? Can anything be more irrational, my friends, than this? You, Callicles,
compel me to be a mob-orator, because you will not answer.
CALLICLES: And you are the man who cannot speak unless there is some one to answer?
SOCRATES: I suppose that I can; just now, at any rate, the speeches which I am making
are long enough because you refuse to answer me. But I adjure you by the god of friendship,
my good sir, do tell me whether there does not appear to you to be a great inconsistency
in saying that you have made a man good, and then blaming him for being bad?
CALLICLES: Yes, it appears so to me. SOCRATES: Do you never hear our professors
of education speaking in this inconsistent manner?
CALLICLES: Yes, but why talk of men who are good for nothing?
SOCRATES: I would rather say, why talk of men who profess to be rulers, and declare
that they are devoted to the improvement of the city, and nevertheless upon occasion declaim
against the utter vileness of the city:—do you think that there is any difference between
one and the other? My good friend, the sophist and the rhetorician, as I was saying to Polus,
are the same, or nearly the same; but you ignorantly fancy that rhetoric is a perfect
thing, and sophistry a thing to be despised; whereas the truth is, that sophistry is as
much superior to rhetoric as legislation is to the practice of law, or gymnastic to medicine.
The orators and sophists, as I am inclined to think, are the only class who cannot complain
of the mischief ensuing to themselves from that which they teach others, without in the
same breath accusing themselves of having done no good to those whom they profess to
benefit. Is not this a fact? CALLICLES: Certainly it is.
SOCRATES: If they were right in saying that they make men better, then they are the only
class who can afford to leave their remuneration to those who have been benefited by them.
Whereas if a man has been benefited in any other way, if, for example, he has been taught
to run by a trainer, he might possibly defraud him of his pay, if the trainer left the matter
to him, and made no agreement with him that he should receive money as soon as he had
given him the utmost speed; for not because of any deficiency of speed do men act unjustly,
but by reason of injustice. CALLICLES: Very true.
SOCRATES: And he who removes injustice can be in no danger of being treated unjustly:
he alone can safely leave the honorarium to his pupils, if he be really able to make them
good—am I not right? (Compare Protag.) CALLICLES: Yes.
SOCRATES: Then we have found the reason why there is no dishonour in a man receiving pay
who is called in to advise about building or any other art?
CALLICLES: Yes, we have found the reason. SOCRATES: But when the point is, how a man
may become best himself, and best govern his family and state, then to say that you will
give no advice gratis is held to be dishonourable? CALLICLES: True.
SOCRATES: And why? Because only such benefits call forth a desire to requite them, and there
is evidence that a benefit has been conferred when the benefactor receives a return; otherwise
not. Is this true? CALLICLES: It is.
SOCRATES: Then to which service of the State do you invite me? determine for me. Am I to
be the physician of the State who will strive and struggle to make the Athenians as good
as possible; or am I to be the servant and flatterer of the State? Speak out, my good
friend, freely and fairly as you did at first and ought to do again, and tell me your entire
mind. CALLICLES: I say then that you should be the
servant of the State. SOCRATES: The flatterer? well, sir, that is
a noble invitation. CALLICLES: The Mysian, Socrates, or what you
please. For if you refuse, the consequences will be—
SOCRATES: Do not repeat the old story—that he who likes will kill me and get my money;
for then I shall have to repeat the old answer, that he will be a bad man and will kill the
good, and that the money will be of no use to him, but that he will wrongly use that
which he wrongly took, and if wrongly, basely, and if basely, hurtfully.
CALLICLES: How confident you are, Socrates, that you will never come to harm! you seem
to think that you are living in another country, and can never be brought into a court of justice,
as you very likely may be brought by some miserable and mean person.
SOCRATES: Then I must indeed be a fool, Callicles, if I do not know that in the Athenian State
any man may suffer anything. And if I am brought to trial and incur the dangers of which you
speak, he will be a villain who brings me to trial—of that I am very sure, for no
good man would accuse the innocent. Nor shall I be surprised if I am put to death. Shall
I tell you why I anticipate this? CALLICLES: By all means.
SOCRATES: I think that I am the only or almost the only Athenian living who practises the
true art of politics; I am the only politician of my time. Now, seeing that when I speak
my words are not uttered with any view of gaining favour, and that I look to what is
best and not to what is most pleasant, having no mind to use those arts and graces which
you recommend, I shall have nothing to say in the justice court. And you might argue
with me, as I was arguing with Polus:—I shall be tried just as a physician would be
tried in a court of little boys at the indictment of the cook. What would he reply under such
circumstances, if some one were to accuse him, saying, 'O my boys, many evil things
has this man done to you: he is the death of you, especially of the younger ones among
you, cutting and burning and starving and suffocating you, until you know not what to
do; he gives you the bitterest potions, and compels you to hunger and thirst. How unlike
the variety of meats and sweets on which I feasted you!' What do you suppose that the
physician would be able to reply when he found himself in such a predicament? If he told
the truth he could only say, 'All these evil things, my boys, I did for your health,' and
then would there not just be a clamour among a jury like that? How they would cry out!
CALLICLES: I dare say. SOCRATES: Would he not be utterly at a loss
for a reply? CALLICLES: He certainly would.
SOCRATES: And I too shall be treated in the same way, as I well know, if I am brought
before the court. For I shall not be able to rehearse to the people the pleasures which
I have procured for them, and which, although I am not disposed to envy either the procurers
or enjoyers of them, are deemed by them to be benefits and advantages. And if any one
says that I corrupt young men, and perplex their minds, or that I speak evil of old men,
and use bitter words towards them, whether in private or public, it is useless for me
to reply, as I truly might:—'All this I do for the sake of justice, and with a view
to your interest, my judges, and to nothing else.' And therefore there is no saying what
may happen to me. CALLICLES: And do you think, Socrates, that
a man who is thus defenceless is in a good position?
SOCRATES: Yes, Callicles, if he have that defence, which as you have often acknowledged
he should have—if he be his own defence, and have never said or done anything wrong,
either in respect of gods or men; and this has been repeatedly acknowledged by us to
be the best sort of defence. And if any one could convict me of inability to defend myself
or others after this sort, I should blush for shame, whether I was convicted before
many, or before a few, or by myself alone; and if I died from want of ability to do so,
that would indeed grieve me. But if I died because I have no powers of flattery or rhetoric,
I am very sure that you would not find me repining at death. For no man who is not an
utter fool and coward is afraid of death itself, but he is afraid of doing wrong. For to go
to the world below having one's soul full of injustice is the last and worst of all
evils. And in proof of what I say, if you have no objection, I should like to tell you
a story. CALLICLES: Very well, proceed; and then we
shall have done. SOCRATES: Listen, then, as story-tellers say,
to a very pretty tale, which I dare say that you may be disposed to regard as a fable only,
but which, as I believe, is a true tale, for I mean to speak the truth. Homer tells us
(Il.), how Zeus and Poseidon and Pluto divided the empire which they inherited from their
father. Now in the days of Cronos there existed a law respecting the destiny of man, which
has always been, and still continues to be in Heaven,—that he who has lived all his
life in justice and holiness shall go, when he is dead, to the Islands of the Blessed,
and dwell there in perfect happiness out of the reach of evil; but that he who has lived
unjustly and impiously shall go to the house of vengeance and punishment, which is called
Tartarus. And in the time of Cronos, and even quite lately in the reign of Zeus, the judgment
was given on the very day on which the men were to die; the judges were alive, and the
men were alive; and the consequence was that the judgments were not well given. Then Pluto
and the authorities from the Islands of the Blessed came to Zeus, and said that the souls
found their way to the wrong places. Zeus said: 'I shall put a stop to this; the judgments
are not well given, because the persons who are judged have their clothes on, for they
are alive; and there are many who, having evil souls, are apparelled in fair bodies,
or encased in wealth or rank, and, when the day of judgment arrives, numerous witnesses
come forward and testify on their behalf that they have lived righteously. The judges are
awed by them, and they themselves too have their clothes on when judging; their eyes
and ears and their whole bodies are interposed as a veil before their own souls. All this
is a hindrance to them; there are the clothes of the judges and the clothes of the judged.—What
is to be done? I will tell you:—In the first place, I will deprive men of the foreknowledge
of death, which they possess at present: this power which they have Prometheus has already
received my orders to take from them: in the second place, they shall be entirely stripped
before they are judged, for they shall be judged when they are dead; and the judge too
shall be naked, that is to say, dead—he with his naked soul shall pierce into the
other naked souls; and they shall die suddenly and be deprived of all their kindred, and
leave their brave attire strewn upon the earth—conducted in this manner, the judgment will be just.
I knew all about the matter before any of you, and therefore I have made my sons judges;
two from Asia, Minos and Rhadamanthus, and one from Europe, Aeacus. And these, when they
are dead, shall give judgment in the meadow at the parting of the ways, whence the two
roads lead, one to the Islands of the Blessed, and the other to Tartarus. Rhadamanthus shall
judge those who come from Asia, and Aeacus those who come from Europe. And to Minos I
shall give the primacy, and he shall hold a court of appeal, in case either of the two
others are in any doubt:—then the judgment respecting the last journey of men will be
as just as possible.' From this tale, Callicles, which I have heard
and believe, I draw the following inferences:—Death, if I am right, is in the first place the separation
from one another of two things, soul and body; nothing else. And after they are separated
they retain their several natures, as in life; the body keeps the same habit, and the results
of treatment or accident are distinctly visible in it: for example, he who by nature or training
or both, was a tall man while he was alive, will remain as he was, after he is dead; and
the fat man will remain fat; and so on; and the dead man, who in life had a fancy to have
flowing hair, will have flowing hair. And if he was marked with the whip and had the
prints of the scourge, or of wounds in him when he was alive, you might see the same
in the dead body; and if his limbs were broken or misshapen when he was alive, the same appearance
would be visible in the dead. And in a word, whatever was the habit of the body during
life would be distinguishable after death, either perfectly, or in a great measure and
for a certain time. And I should imagine that this is equally true of the soul, Callicles;
when a man is stripped of the body, all the natural or acquired affections of the soul
are laid open to view.—And when they come to the judge, as those from Asia come to Rhadamanthus,
he places them near him and inspects them quite impartially, not knowing whose the soul
is: perhaps he may lay hands on the soul of the great king, or of some other king or potentate,
who has no soundness in him, but his soul is marked with the whip, and is full of the
prints and scars of perjuries and crimes with which each action has stained him, and he
is all crooked with falsehood and imposture, and has no straightness, because he has lived
without truth. Him Rhadamanthus beholds, full of all deformity and disproportion, which
is caused by licence and luxury and insolence and incontinence, and despatches him ignominiously
to his prison, and there he undergoes the punishment which he deserves.
Now the proper office of punishment is twofold: he who is rightly punished ought either to
become better and profit by it, or he ought to be made an example to his fellows, that
they may see what he suffers, and fear and become better. Those who are improved when
they are punished by gods and men, are those whose sins are curable; and they are improved,
as in this world so also in another, by pain and suffering; for there is no other way in
which they can be delivered from their evil. But they who have been guilty of the worst
crimes, and are incurable by reason of their crimes, are made examples; for, as they are
incurable, the time has passed at which they can receive any benefit. They get no good
themselves, but others get good when they behold them enduring for ever the most terrible
and painful and fearful sufferings as the penalty of their sins—there they are, hanging
up as examples, in the prison-house of the world below, a spectacle and a warning to
all unrighteous men who come thither. And among them, as I confidently affirm, will
be found Archelaus, if Polus truly reports of him, and any other tyrant who is like him.
Of these fearful examples, most, as I believe, are taken from the class of tyrants and kings
and potentates and public men, for they are the authors of the greatest and most impious
crimes, because they have the power. And Homer witnesses to the truth of this; for they are
always kings and potentates whom he has described as suffering everlasting punishment in the
world below: such were Tantalus and Sisyphus and Tityus. But no one ever described Thersites,
or any private person who was a villain, as suffering everlasting punishment, or as incurable.
For to commit the worst crimes, as I am inclined to think, was not in his power, and he was
happier than those who had the power. No, Callicles, the very bad men come from the
class of those who have power (compare Republic). And yet in that very class there may arise
good men, and worthy of all admiration they are, for where there is great power to do
wrong, to live and to die justly is a hard thing, and greatly to be praised, and few
there are who attain to this. Such good and true men, however, there have been, and will
be again, at Athens and in other states, who have fulfilled their trust righteously; and
there is one who is quite famous all over Hellas, Aristeides, the son of Lysimachus.
But, in general, great men are also bad, my friend.
As I was saying, Rhadamanthus, when he gets a soul of the bad kind, knows nothing about
him, neither who he is, nor who his parents are; he knows only that he has got hold of
a villain; and seeing this, he stamps him as curable or incurable, and sends him away
to Tartarus, whither he goes and receives his proper recompense. Or, again, he looks
with admiration on the soul of some just one who has lived in holiness and truth; he may
have been a private man or not; and I should say, Callicles, that he is most likely to
have been a philosopher who has done his own work, and not troubled himself with the doings
of other men in his lifetime; him Rhadamanthus sends to the Islands of the Blessed. Aeacus
does the same; and they both have sceptres, and judge; but Minos alone has a golden sceptre
and is seated looking on, as Odysseus in Homer declares that he saw him:
'Holding a sceptre of gold, and giving laws to the dead.'
Now I, Callicles, am persuaded of the truth of these things, and I consider how I shall
present my soul whole and undefiled before the judge in that day. Renouncing the honours
at which the world aims, I desire only to know the truth, and to live as well as I can,
and, when I die, to die as well as I can. And, to the utmost of my power, I exhort all
other men to do the same. And, in return for your exhortation of me, I exhort you also
to take part in the great combat, which is the combat of life, and greater than every
other earthly conflict. And I retort your reproach of me, and say, that you will not
be able to help yourself when the day of trial and judgment, of which I was speaking, comes
upon you; you will go before the judge, the son of Aegina, and, when he has got you in
his grip and is carrying you off, you will gape and your head will swim round, just as
mine would in the courts of this world, and very likely some one will shamefully box you
on the ears, and put upon you any sort of insult.
Perhaps this may appear to you to be only an old wife's tale, which you will contemn.
And there might be reason in your contemning such tales, if by searching we could find
out anything better or truer: but now you see that you and Polus and Gorgias, who are
the three wisest of the Greeks of our day, are not able to show that we ought to live
any life which does not profit in another world as well as in this. And of all that
has been said, nothing remains unshaken but the saying, that to do injustice is more to
be avoided than to suffer injustice, and that the reality and not the appearance of virtue
is to be followed above all things, as well in public as in private life; and that when
any one has been wrong in anything, he is to be chastised, and that the next best thing
to a man being just is that he should become just, and be chastised and punished; also
that he should avoid all flattery of himself as well as of others, of the few or of the
many: and rhetoric and any other art should be used by him, and all his actions should
be done always, with a view to justice. Follow me then, and I will lead you where
you will be happy in life and after death, as the argument shows. And never mind if some
one despises you as a fool, and insults you, if he has a mind; let him strike you, by Zeus,
and do you be of good cheer, and do not mind the insulting blow, for you will never come
to any harm in the practice of virtue, if you are a really good and true man. When we
have practised virtue together, we will apply ourselves to politics, if that seems desirable,
or we will advise about whatever else may seem good to us, for we shall be better able
to judge then. In our present condition we ought not to give ourselves airs, for even
on the most important subjects we are always changing our minds; so utterly stupid are
we! Let us, then, take the argument as our guide, which has revealed to us that the best
way of life is to practise justice and every virtue in life and death. This way let us
go; and in this exhort all men to follow, not in the way to which you trust and in which
you exhort me to follow you; for that way, Callicles, is nothing worth.
End of Gorgias by Plato Translated by Benjamin Jowett