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> Male Announcer: THE FOLLOWING
IS A COLLEGE TELECOURSE
BASED ON THE
TEXTBOOK PSYCHOLOGY, WRITTEN
BY DON AND SANDRA HOCKENBURY
AND PUBLISHED BY WORTH
PUBLISHERS.
[Music]
>> Male Narrator: THE GRACEFUL
MOVEMENT OF DANCERS
SEEMS SO NATURAL AND
EFFORTLESS.
BUT LIKE SO MANY ACTIONS
HUMANS PERFORM, IT MUST BE
LEARNED.
BUT WHAT IS LEARNING?
HOW DO WE LEARN?
DO OUR THOUGHTS PLAY A ROLE
IN THE LEARNING PROCESS?
AND IF "YES" TO WHAT EXTENT?
[New Age music]
♪♪♪♪♪
>> Male Narrator: NO MATTER
HOW MUCH OF A ROUTINE
WE MAY DEVELOP, OUR
DAILY LIVES ARE FILLED WITH
LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES.
TRYING OUT A NEW RECIPE...
FINDING A DIFFERENT ROUTE
HOME...
OR ACQUIRING A FRESH SKILL.
AND FOR EVERY UNIQUE APPROACH
WE TRY, THERE ARE OFTEN NEW
BEHAVIORS THAT MUST BE
ACQUIRED - IN OTHER WORDS, WE
ARE ALWAYS LEARNING.
BUT HOW DOES THIS PROCESS
TAKE PLACE?
IN BARBARA NOEL'S DANCE
CLASS, THE METHODS ARE AS
VARIED AS THE MOVEMENTS.
> I TEACH DANCE IN MANY
DIFFERENT WAYS BECAUSE I HAVE
A LOT OF DIFFERENT STUDENTS
THAT COME FROM A VARIETY OF
BACKGROUNDS.
SO THERE'S THE COMMAND STYLE
WHERE I SAY DO THIS, DO THAT.
THERE'S THE WAY I JUST MOVE
AND HAVE THEM LEARN THROUGH
OBSERVATION AND PERCEPTION.
IT'S CALLED TPR, TOTAL
PHYSICAL RESPONSE.
THERE'S ALSO TIMES WHERE I
WILL JUST USE WORDS.
SO THAT THEY LEARN
TERMINOLOGY, DANCE
TERMINOLOGY.
SO I MIGHT SAY, "MOVE UP
STAGE DOING TWO SASHAYS INTO
A SHINET, SLIDE INTO THE
FLOOR AND COME UP."
...AND SLIDE, 5-6-7-8, TWO
CHINETS, 1-2...
THEY ALSO LEARN ABOUT SPATIAL
AWARENESS IN DANCE.
THEY ARE CONSTANTLY MOVING,
THINKING ABOUT THEIR
RELATIONSHIP WITH ANOTHER
DANCER OR WITH THEMSELVES IN
SPACE.
THEY HAVE TO BE CONNECTING
WITH MUSIC.
SO THAT'S A WHOLE OTHER
INTELLIGENCE.
REALLY LISTENING TO THE MUSIC
AND GETTING ON TO THAT METER
AND THE COUNTS.
THEY HAVE TO RETAIN -- HAVE
MOVEMENT PATTERN RETENTION,
REMEMBERING DIRECTIONAL
CHANGES AND LEVEL CHANGES.
THEY'VE GOT TO BRING
SOMETHING TO THE DANCE.
IT'S NOT JUST ABOUT DOING A
BUNCH OF STEPS.
THIS IS ALL THE INTERPERSONAL
AND EXTRA-PERSONAL THINGS.
WE ARE TRYING TO COMMUNICATE
SOMETHING TO AN AUDIENCE.
IT SHOULDN'T BE A MOMENT
WHERE YOU'RE SECURE.
IT SHOULD BE A MOMENT OF
INSECURITY.
IT SHOULD BE A MOMENT OF
EXCITEMENT BECAUSE YOU'RE
GOING TO FALL.
IF YOU DO THIS, IT'S NOT VERY
EXCITING.
BUT IT'S EXCITING TO SEE THIS
FALL HAPPENING.
IT'S THE ARC THAT WE'RE
LOOKING FOR.
>> Male Narrator: THE QUESTION
OF HOW WE LEARN TO DANCE -
OR READ, OR TALK, OR
PERFORM ANY BEHAVIOR - HAS LONG
BEEN A TOPIC OF INTEREST
AMONG PSYCHOLOGISTS.
AND WITH THE MANY BEHAVIORS
THAT HUMANS CAN EXHIBIT, IT'S
NOT SURPRISING THAT THEY HAVE
IDENTIFIED SEVERAL WAYS THAT
WE LEARN.
[Music]
IN THE EARLY 1900s,
PSYCHOLOGISTS DISCOVERED TWO
BASIC TYPES OF LEARNING THAT
CHANGED OUR FUNDAMENTAL
UNDERSTANDING OF HOW LEARNING
OCCURS: CLASSICAL AND OPERANT
CONDITIONING.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
EXPLAINS HOW WE LEARN
REFLEXIVE RESPONSES WHEN TWO
STIMULI ARE REPEATEDLY PAIRED.
IVAN PAVLOV PIONEERED THE
STUDY OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING IN HIS
EXPERIMENTS INVOLVING THE
SALIVATION REFLEX IN DOGS.
HE NOTICED THAT DOGS BEGAN TO
SALIVATE BEFORE HE FED THEM,
SO HE DID AN EXPERIMENT IN
WHICH HE USED A SIGNAL
WHENEVER THE DOGS WERE FED.
SOON, THE DOGS BEGAN TO
SALIVATE WHENEVER THEY SAW
THE SIGNAL, WHETHER OR NOT
THERE WAS ANY FOOD PRESENT.
THE SIGNAL TRIGGERED THE
SALIVARY REFLEX.
THIS DISCOVERY SOON BECAME
THE CORNERSTONE OF A NEW
APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY -
CALLED BEHAVIORISM.
MANY PSYCHOLOGISTS CAME TO
BELIEVE THAT ALL ANIMAL AND
HUMAN BEHAVIOR IS A RESULT OF
LEARNING THROUGH
CONDITIONING - WITH NO
COGNITIVE PROCESSES INVOLVED
WHATSOEVER.
HOWEVER, OTHER PSYCHOLOGISTS
DISAGREED.
> ROBERT RESCORLA HAD TWO
GROUPS OF RATS.
IN THE FIRST GROUP OF RATS,
THERE WERE 20 TONE-SHOCK
PAIRINGS.
IN OTHER WORDS THEY
EXPERIENCED 20 TONES, AND
AFTER EACH TONE THERE WAS A
SHOCK.
THE SECOND GROUP OF RATS WAS
A LITTLE BIT DIFFERENT.
THERE WERE 20 TONES, BUT
INSTEAD OF THERE BEING 20
SHOCKS THERE WERE 40 SHOCKS.
IN OTHER WORDS, SOMETIMES THE
TONE PREDICTED A SHOCK AND
SOMETIMES IT DID NOT.
SOMETIMES A SHOCK JUST CAME
ANYWAY.
THEY DID NOT LEARN TO PAIR,
THEY DID NOT BECOME
CLASSICALLY CONDITIONED TO
FEAR THE TONE BECAUSE THEY
DID NOT HAVE THE TONE-SHOCK
PAIRINGS.
IT WAS NOT IN A CONSISTENT
WAY AT ALL.
E
ANARorE : TOTH UESNDEERST
S THSUE GGAGESINTG PROCESS,
THAT THE RATS IN THE SECOND
GROUP COULD SOMEHOW TELL THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RELIABLE
SE
WHICH THEY CAN INTERACT,TOLEYS S
RESCORLA CONCLUDED THAT THIS
WAS THE RESULT OF COGNITIVE
TH
CPRANOC EESXPSELOS.RE.
THESE COULD BE SMALL MAZES, WHEELS, LADDERS,
> WHEN RESCORLA TALKS ABOUT A
RELIABLE SIGNAL, HE'S TALKING
ABOUT HOW RATS - AND REALLY ALL
ANIMALS - LEARN TO ASSOCIATE
DIFFERENT EVENTS IN DAILY
LIFE.
LET'S JUST GIVE YOU AN
EXAMPLE.
WHEN YOU HEAR A POLICE SIREN,
YOU THINK THERE'S A POLICE
CAR COMING, I'D BETTER PULL
OVER.
WHEN YOU HEAR A TORNADO
SIREN, YOU LOOK UP AT THE
SKY, ALL RIGHT.
IF TORNADOES CAME ROARING
THROUGH AND THE TORNADO SIREN
ONLY WENT OFF ONCE OUT OF,
ONE OUT OF TEN TIMES, YOU
WOULD QUICKLY LEARN TO IGNORE
THE TORNADO SIREN.
IT WOULDN'T MEAN ANYTHING TO
YOU.
BECAUSE A POLICE SIREN IS
TYPICALLY FOLLOWED BY A
POLICE CAR SCREAMING DOWN THE
HIGHWAY, YOU EXPECT THAT, YOU
COME TO LEARN THAT A POLICE
SIREN IS A RELIABLE PREDICTOR
OF A POLICE CAR COMING DOWN
THE ROAD AND YOU LOOK FOR IT.
>> Barbara: OKAY DANCERS!
[She claps her hands audibly]
> Male Narrator: BARBARA'S
DANCERS KNOW WHAT
THIS SIGNAL MEANS - AND THEY
REACT ACCORDINGLY.
BUT IF BARBARA WERE TO USE A
DIFFERENT CUE - SAY, CLEARING
HER THROAT - THE CLASS WOULD
NOT QUIET DOWN AS QUICKLY.
THAT'S BECAUSE THE CUE DOES
NOT BECOME A RELIABLE SIGNAL
UNTIL THE DANCERS HAVE
LEARNED TO ASSOCIATE IT WITH
A PARTICULAR MEANING.
THE COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF
THINKING AND REMEMBERING MAKE
THIS ASSOCIATION POSSIBLE.
WHILE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
DEALS WITH AUTOMATIC
REFLEXIVE RESPONSES, OPERANT
CONDITIONING DEALS WITH HOW
WE LEARN VOLUNTARY BEHAVIORS.
FOR EXAMPLE, IN A DANCE
CLASS, OPERANT CONDITIONING
HELPS STUDENTS LEARN TO
FINE-TUNE THEIR MOVEMENTS.
>> Barbara: BIG SWEEP, YES,
YES, GOOD, EXCELLENT!
> Male Narrator: A SMILE
AND WORDS OF PRAISE
FROM BARBARA REINFORCE THE
ACTION THAT SHE WOULD LIKE TO
SEE REPEATED.
OPERANT CONDITIONING -- A
TERM COINED BY NOTED
PSYCHOLOGIST B. F. SKINNER -
EXPLAINS LEARNING
AS A PROCESS IN WHICH
CONSEQUENCES SHAPE BEHAVIOR.
FOR INSTANCE, IF A PIGEON IN
A BOX MAKES A SLIGHT TURN TO
THE LEFT AND IS IMMEDIATELY
FED, HE IS LIKELY TO TURN TO
THE LEFT AGAIN.
EACH TIME HE IS FED, THE LEFT
TURN IS "REINFORCED."
GIVEN ENOUGH REINFORCEMENT,
THE PIGEON IS LIKELY TO TURN
LEFT UNTIL IT MAKES A FULL
CIRCLE... OR TWO...OR THREE...
IN SKINNER'S VIEW, OPERANT
CONDITIONING DID NOT REQUIRE
MENTAL PROCESSES.
IT IS SIMPLY THE NATURAL
RESPONSE OF AN ANIMAL TO AN
OUTSIDE REINFORCER.
SKINNER WAS CONVINCED THAT
MOST BEHAVIORAL LEARNING
OCCURS IN THIS WAY, WITH NO
MENTAL PROCESSES INVOLVED.
HOWEVER, NOT ALL
PSYCHOLOGISTS AGREED WITH
THIS VIEW.
TWO OF THEM WERE FAMED
PSYCHOLOGIST ALBERT BANDURA
AND HIS COLLEAGUE MIKE
MAHONEY.
IN AN EXPERIMENT THAT WENT
STRAIGHT TO THE DOGS, THEY
SET OUT TO DEMONSTRATE THAT
EXTERNAL REWARDS ALONE COULD
NOT ACCOUNT FOR ALL LEARNING,
AND THAT INTERNAL PROCESSES
ALSO PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE.
>> MIKE MAHONEY AND I DECIDED
THAT WE COULD DEMONSTRATE,
THAT WE COULD TEACH ANIMALS
TO BE SELF-REGULATORS.
AND SO -- AND SO THEY WERE
GIVEN FULL CONTROL OVER THOSE
REWARDS RATHER THAN HAVING
THEM DISPENSED BY THE
EXPERIMENTER.
AND THEN IN THE TRUE SPIRIT
OF THE PROTESTANT ETHIC, WE
TAUGHT THEM THAT THEY SHOULD
WORK BEFORE THEY REWARD
THEMSELVES.
AND SO -- SO WE -- WE HAVE A
STUDY WHERE A DOGGY ENTERS A
ROOM AND GOES TO AN ELECTRIC
TYPEWRITER AND TYPES, AND
THEN GOES OVER TO THE
REFRIGERATOR AND LOOKS AT HIS
BIG SUPPLY OF MEAT MORSELS
AND TAKES ONLY ONE AND THEN
GOES BACK AND DOES MORE
TYPING.
AND SO THIS DOG REALLY
SUPPORTS A LOT OF PRODUCTIVE
ACTIVITY WITHOUT ANYONE BEING
IN THE ROOM REGULATING HIS
BEHAVIOR.
> Male Narrator: BUT
ALBERT BANDURA WAS NOT
THE EARLIEST PSYCHOLOGIST TO
BELIEVE THAT SKINNER'S THEORY
DID NOT TELL THE WHOLE STORY.
OTHERS ALSO FELT THAT MENTAL
PROCESSES MUST PLAY A ROLE IN
LEARNING.
THE FIRST EXPERIMENTS TO
EXPLORE THIS WERE CONDUCTED
BY EDWARD TOLMAN, WHO
DISCOVERED THE PHENOMENA OF
"COGNITIVE MAPS" AND "LATENT
LEARNING."
>> IN THE CLASSICAL LATENT
LEARNING EXPERIMENT,
ANIMALS - RATS - WERE PUT IN A
MAZE AND ALLOWED TO WANDER
AROUND WITH NO REWARD.
RIGHT, NO REWARD.
SO THEY COULDN'T BE LEARNING
ANYTHING ACCORDING TO ANY
KIND OF A THEORY THAT SAYS
REWARD IS NECESSARY FOR
LEARNING, THEY COULDN'T BE
LEARNING ANYTHING BECAUSE
THEY'RE NOT REWARDED.
THEN ONE DAY AFTER THEY'D HAD
A NUMBER OF TRIALS, YOU PUT
FOOD IN THE GOAL BOX AND YOU
SAY, NOW WHAT WILL THEY DO?
WELL WHAT HE FOUND IS THAT
THE NEXT DAY THEY BEHAVED
JUST LIKE ANIMALS THAT HAD
PREVIOUSLY BEEN REWARDED ON
EVERY SINGLE TRIAL.
SO THAT DEMONSTRATED THAT
LEARNING HAD OCCURRED, BUT IT
WAS HIDDEN, OR IT WAS LATENT
UNTIL IT WAS DRAWN OUT BY THE
REWARD.
> Barbara: LET'S WATCH ELENA
DO THAT AGAIN.
HER ARMS AREN'T HERE...
>> Male Narrator: LATENT
LEARNING IS ALSO AT
WORK IN HUMANS.
FOR EXAMPLE, DURING
REHEARSALS A DANCER IS
SUPPOSED TO LEARN CERTAIN
STEPS SO THAT SHE CAN PERFORM
HER PART OF THE OVERALL
ROUTINE.
HOWEVER, SHE MAY LEARN THE
ROLE OF ANOTHER DANCER JUST
BY WATCHING THE REPEATED
PERFORMANCES, EVEN THOUGH SHE
RECEIVES NO REINFORCEMENT FOR
DOING SO.
[Applause]
> Barbara: OKAY,
LET'S SWITCH GROUPS.
>> Male Narrator: DANCER "A"
MAY HAVE NO REASON
TO DEMONSTRATE WHAT SHE'S
LEARNED UNLESS DANCER "B"
CAN'T PERFORM FOR SOME REASON.
BUT IF SHE'S ASKED TO STEP
INTO THE NEW ROLE, DANCER "A"
WILL PROBABLY FIND THAT SHE
ALREADY KNOWS MOST OF THE
ROUTINE.
TOLMAN ALSO FOUND THAT WHEN
HE MADE A CHANGE IN A MAZE
THEY HAD ALREADY LEARNED,
RATS COULD EASILY MAKE AN
ADJUSTMENT.
THEY HAD FORMED A "COGNITIVE
MAP" OF THE MAZE SIMILAR TO
WHAT HUMANS DO WHEN FINDING
OUR WAY AROUND TOWN.
> AS YOU DRIVE THROUGH TOWN YOU
DEVELOP A, NOT A LITERAL MAP
BUT A COGNITIVE MAP OF WHERE
YOU HAVE BEEN AND WHERE
YOU'RE GOING AND IT'S THIS
MAP THAT YOU USE TO DO THE
NAVIGATION.
IF YOU LIKE, IT'S AN INTERNAL
REPRESENTATION OF THE WORLD.
THAT IS WHAT GUIDES THE
PERSON WHO IS DRIVING FROM
WORK TO HOME IN THE EVENING,
NOT THE SPECIFIC CONTRACTION
OF SPECIFIC MUSCLES IN THE
PAST BUT RATHER, THE MUSCLES
THAT MAY NEED TO BE
CONTRACTED IN A PARTICULAR
WAY AT THIS TIME BECAUSE OF
THE MAP THAT PEOPLE HAVE IN
THEIR HEAD ABOUT NEEDING TO
GO FROM HERE TO THERE IN
ORDER TO GET THERE.
>> Male Narrator: THE PRINCIPLE
OF COGNITIVE MAPS
CAN BE APPLIED TO MANY
SITUATIONS - INCLUDING A DANCE
PERFORMANCE.
> YOU MAY LEARN HOW TO DANCE ON
A PARTICULAR SIZE STAGE.
AND THEN FOR ANOTHER
PERFORMANCE, YOU MAY MOVE TO
A STAGE THAT HAS A DIFFERENT
SIZE AND A DIFFERENT SHAPE.
AND WHAT CAN BE DONE IS TO
USE THIS INFORMATION ABOUT
RELATIONSHIPS AND THIS
RELATIONSHIP INFORMATION IS
WHAT IS TRANSFERRED SO THAT
PERFORMANCE CAN BE EFFECTIVE.
NOW THIS IS DONE ALL THE TIME
IN PROFESSIONAL DANCERS.
ALL THE TIME BECAUSE THEY
MOVE FROM CITY TO CITY WITH
THEIR DANCERS AND EVERY PLACE
THEY GO HAS A DIFFERENT SIZE
STAGE, YET THEY PERFORM THEIR
PERFORMANCES BECAUSE THEY CAN
CONTRACT AND EXPAND; BECAUSE
THEY HAVE THIS INTERNAL
INFORMATION ABOUT THE
RELATIONSHIPS IN THE
LEARNING, NOT JUST THE EXACT
MOVEMENTS.
>> Male Narrator: CLASSICAL
AND OPERANT CONDITIONING
TELL US MUCH
ABOUT THE ROLE OF DIRECT
EXPERIENCE IN LEARNING.
HOWEVER, MUCH HUMAN LEARNING
OCCURS INDIRECTLY BY WATCHING
AND IMITATING OTHERS.
THIS IS CALLED "OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING" AND DANCE IS A
PERFECT EXAMPLE.
> OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING IS A
PROCESS WHEREBY PEOPLE
ACQUIRE ATTITUDES, VALUES,
NEW WAYS OF THINKING AND
BEHAVING BY OBSERVING THE
ACTIONS OF OTHERS AND THE
CONSEQUENCES FOR THEM.
YOU CAN SPEND A LOT OF - WASTE
A LOT OF TIME IN
TRIAL-AND-ERROR FUMBLING AND,
UM, AND THEN MANY -- MANY
MISTAKES AND ERRORS CAN BE
HIGHLY COSTLY.
THEY COULD BE EVEN FATAL.
SO MODELING ENABLES YOU TO
SHORT CUT THIS PROCESS BY
DRAWING ON THE COMPETENCIES
AROUND YOU.
>> Male Narrator: OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING - OR MODELING -
BEGINS VERY EARLY IN
CHILDHOOD.
BABIES AS YOUNG AS 3 WEEKS
IMITATE TONGUE MOVEMENTS THEY
OBSERVE IN ADULTS WHO PLAY
WITH THEM.
AS EVERY PARENT KNOWS, AS
BABIES GROW AND DEVELOP, THEY
WILL CONTINUE TO MODEL THE
BEHAVIORS OF THE PEOPLE
AROUND THEM.
IT'S IMPORTANT TO KEEP IN
MIND, THOUGH, THAT
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING IS NOT
SIMPLY A FORM OF IMITATION.
COGNITIVE PROCESSES ARE
INVOLVED.
> FOR EXAMPLE, IN LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT, PEOPLE ARE